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GRAMMAR 



THE ENGLISH SENTENCE 



BY 

JONATHAN RIGDON 

PRESIDENT OP THE CENTRAL NORMAL COLLEGE 



" Mend your speech a little, lest you mar your fortune " 

— King Lear 



DANVILLE, IND. 

THE INDIANA PUBLISHING COMPANY 

1903 






RIGDON'S 

Grammar of the English Sentence. 85 cents. 

English Grammar for the Common School. 60 cents. 

English Grammar for Beginners. 40 cents. 

Analysis of the English Sentence, with Diagrams. 75 cents. 

Outlines in Grammar and Discussion of Infinitives and 

Participles. 25 cents. 
Methods in Arithmetic. 25 cents. 
Outlines in Psychology. 25 cents. 



Copyright, 1890, 1903, 
By JONATHAN KIGDON. 




THE LIBRARY OF 
CONGf fcSS 

Two Copies Receiver 

JUN 24,1903 m 

Ojopyrife; 
LASS <JU XXc. No 



NorfaootJ 39r?sa 

J. S. Cushinp & Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood :hi.I Bottom, Mass., I'.M.A. 



TO THE MEMORY OF 

IHs JFatfjer 

WHOSE INTEREST IN ENGLISH 
WAS MY INSPIRATION 



PREFACE TO THE THIRTIETH THOUSAND. 1 

Since the Grammar of the English Sentence appeared, twelve 
years ago, the author has used it as a text in sixty different 
classes, aggregating nearly ten thousand students. There 
could have been offered no better opportunity to determine 
what positions are tenable, what points need further elabora- 
tion, what statements should be modified, and what matter 
may be omitted. The opportunity has not been allowed to 
pass unused. The book has been entirely rewritten. Not 
every sentence has been changed, but every one has been 
carefully examined. 

The fundamental ideas of the old book — that grammar is the 
science of the sentence, that the sentence is determined by the 
thought it expresses, that English grammar should be an exposi- 
tion of present usage, and that a knowledge of it is indispensable 
to ability to speak and write correctly — remain fundamental in 
the new one. The historical feature has received no attention, 
— partly because others have done it so much better than the 
writer could do it, but chiefly because it is regarded as unes- 
sential to the purpose of this book. It has been estimated 
that of every hundred pupils now studying English grammar 
not more than one will ever read a page of English earlier 
than the age of Elizabeth. This book is for the ninety and 
nine. The one must find elsewhere the exhaustive study of 
historical English accidence. 

Conspicuous among the new features are : — 

(1) More attention to the thought foundations of grammar. 
The Introduction will afford the teacher an opportunity to 
work out with his class the essential relations between thought 
forms and their verbal expressions. This work will require 
care and patience, but it must be thoroughly mastered. Yet 
an effort has been made not to overdo this phase of the work, 
for it is well to keep constantly in mind that grammar is 
grammar and not logic or psychology. 

1 The Preface to the First Thousand may be seen on page 282. 



VI PREFACE TO THIRTIETH THOUSAND. 

(2) An earlier and fuller explanation of some fundamental 

distinctions, among which are, — (a) subject of a verb, subject 
of a thought, and subject or agent of an act; (b) object of a verb, 
object of a thought, and object of an act ; (c) a verb, the thought 
relation it expresses, and the action related in thought. Any 
express or implied identification of these closely related, but 
widely different, things ends in everlasting confusion. 

(3) A systematic series of reviews. It is not possible for a 
class to master the matter contained in these reviews without 
being well grounded in English grammar and abundantly able 
to apply its principles in correct expression. 

(4) More exercises in the construction of original sentences to 
illustrate the principle under consideration. Of all gram- 
matical exercises, this is the best. 

(5) A fuller discussion of all grammatical difficulties, such as 
Transitive and Intransitive Verbs; Attributive and Copulative 
Verbs; Voice, Mode, and Tense; Infinitives and Participles; 
Conjunctive or Relative, Direct Interrogative, and Indirect In- 
terrogative Pronouns; Ordinary Conjunctive Adverbs, Relative 
Conjunctive Adverbs, Direct Interrogative Adverbs, and Indirect 
Interrogative Adverbs. 

Purpose of the Book. — In its present and final form the 
Grammar of the English Sentence is intended to serve as a 
text-book for high schools and normal schools, and as a hand- 
book for teachers that want something more than the essentials 
of English grammar. Except in the hands of a master, it is 
not well adapted to the needs of beginners. The author's 
Grammar for Beginners and Grammar for the Common Schools 
are better suited to those not yet ready for this book ; and any 
one that cares for a more extended study of Diagrammed 
Analysis will find it in the Analysis of the English Sentence 
with Diagrams. 

To the many thousands that have spoken kindly of the Gram- 
mar of the English Sentence in its original form, the author 
wishes to use this opportunity to express his gratitude, together 
with the hope that they will find this book more accurate, 
more interesting, and in every way more helpful. 

JONATHAN RIGDON. 
Central Normal College, 
Juue 1, 1908. 



CONTENTS. 
PART I. INTRODUCTION. 

PAGE 

SOME THOUGHT FOUNDATIONS OF LANGUAGE . . 1 
PARTS OF SPEECH DEFINED 6 

Properties of the Parts of Speech . „ . .12 

PARSING OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH .... 13 

SUBJECTS, AGENTS, VERBS, ACTIONS, AND OBJECTS . 14 

COMPLEMENTS 16 

SENTENCES 17 

Classes of Sentences 18 

PHRASES 20 

Classes of Phrases 20 

CLAUSES .22 

Classes of Clauses 22 

CAPITAL LETTERS -23 

PUNCTUATION . 23 

GENERAL REVIEW .25 

PART II. PARTS OF SPEECH. 

THE NOUN 28 

Classes of Nouns 28 

Sub-classes of Nouns 30 

Properties of Nouns .... ... 31 

Person 32 

Number 33 

Gender 37 

Case 40 

vii 



CONTENTS. 



Declension of Nouns 
Parsing of Nouns . 
Review of Nouns 



THE PRONOUN 

Classes of Pronouns 
Personal Pronouns 

Declension of Personal Pronouns 

Parsing of Personal Pronouns 

Filling Blanks with Personal Pronouns 

Interrogative Pronouns 

Declension of Interrogative Pronouns . 
Parsing of Interrogative Pronouns 
Eelative or Conjunctive Pronouns 
Classes of Relative Pronouns 
Comparison of Relative and Personal Pronouns 
Declension of Relative Pronouns . 
Kinds of Relative Clauses .... 
Relative to be preferred in Each Kind of Clause 
Connective Use of Relative Pronouns . 
Parsing of Relative Pronouns 
Filling Blanks with Relative Pronouns and Interroga- 
tive Pronouns 
Outline of Substantives 
Syntax of Substantives . 
Review of Pronouns 



THE ADJECTIVE . 

Classes of Adjectives . 

Sub-classes of Adjectives 
Comparison of Adjectives 
Parsing of Adjectives . 
Outline of Adjectives . 
Syntax of Adjectives 
Review of Adjectives . 



CONTENTS. IX 

PAGE 

THE VERB ... 113 

Classes of Verbs ......... 114 

Properties of Verbs ........ 132 

Voice 133 

Mode 135 

Tense 138 

Person and Number .. 143 

Inflection of Verbs . 143 

Parsing of Verbs 157 

Outline of Verbs ......... 159 

Syntax of Verbs 160 

Review of Verbs . . . 162 

THE ADVERB 164 

Classes of Adverbs ........ 165 

Sub-classes of Adverbs 165 

Comparison of Adverbs 170 

Parsing of Adverbs . . . . . . . .170 

Outline of Adverbs ........ 172 

Syntax of Adverbs . . . . . . . . .172 

Review of Adverbs . .174 

THE PREPOSITION 175 

Classes of Prepositions ........ 175 

Parsing of Prepositions 177 

Outline of Prepositions ........ 179 

Syntax of Prepositions ........ 179 

Review of Prepositions ........ 181 

THE CONJUNCTION 182 

Classes of Conjunctions ....... 183 

Parsing of Conjunctions ....... 184 

Outline of Conjunctions ....... 186 

Syntax of Conjunctions 186 

Review of Conjunctions ....... 189 



X CONTENTS. 

PAGl 

THE INTERJECTION 190 

Syntax or Interjections . . : . . . . 190 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES 192 

Review of Infinitives and Participles .... 223 

RULES OF SYNTAX 22 4 

ANALYSIS 227 

Classification of Sentences 228 

Classification of Elements . . . . . . .231 

Connectives 236 

DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES 238 

Abridgment .......... 256 

Sentences for Diagrams and Analysis .... 260 

Review of Sentences and Elements ..... 281 

PREFACE TO THE FIRST THOUSAND 282 



GEAMMAE OP THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



INTRODUCTION. 

1. We find ourselves in a world of objects. An object 

is anything toward which the mind may be directed. This 
includes not only the things that we become acquainted 
with through the five senses, material things ; but also 
those that can be represented only in thought, immaterial 
things. In the first class belong such as books and chairs, 
stones and stars ; in the second, such as fear and hope, 
melancholy and mind. 

2. Name ten material objects. Ten immaterial objects. 

3. But one's real life is a mental life, a life of thinking. 
The world of objects is meaningless till we represent them 
and relate them in mind. To represent objects in mind 
is to form ideas. An idea is a mental representation of an 
object. (Keep in mind the broad definition of object, any- 
thing toward which thought can be directed.) To think 
is to affirm mentally the relations of objects. A thought 
is the mental affirmation of a relation. 

4. Man is a social being. By nature he is communi- 
cative. He wishes to share his life with others. To do 
this he must embody his thoughts in some outward form 
that will induce others to think them. This outward em- 
bodiment of thought, this instrument of communication, 
is language. It consists of symbols established by agree- 
ment, and can be used for communication only by those 



2 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

that participate in the agreement. In the broad sense of 
the word. Language is any and all symbols used in expression. 
It includes sounds and colors, motions and forms, pictures 
and signs, as well as words. 

5. (1) How many symbols of expression can you namef 
(2) Do the loiver animals think f (3) Bo they have 
language ? 

6. It will readily be seen that even if there should ever 
have been a time when all men used the same system of 
symbols, there are many causes that would have prevented 
them from long continuing to do so. 

7. Name some of these causes and show how they might 
have acted. 

8. It is clear, then, that at any time there will be as 
many languages as there are systems of symbols. All that 
agree upon one system use one language. Any one can 
use a language to the extent that he is master of its 
symbols. A language is a system of symbols established by 
agreement for the expression of thought. 

9. Name several languages. 

10. The language process moves in two directions : The 
mind seizes upon symbols and interprets them in thought. 
This movement is impression. The mind seizes its thought 
contents and embodies them in appropriate symbols. This 
is expression. 

(a) The thought process in which the mind seizes and interprets 
objects may also be included under impression, though not strictly a 
language process. 

11. The relation between the two movements is easily 
seen. Expression can never precede. Impression should 
always be a little but not much in advance. The two are 
inseparable movements of one process and should be so 
developed. Expression without impression is impossible, 
and impression without expression is worthless. 



INTRODUCTION. 6 

12. The unit of language is the portion of it that is neces- 
sary to express a thought. It is called a sentence. A 
sentence is the expression of a thought. 

George works. George is a worker. 

Martha teaches. Martha is a teacher. 

Henry studies. Henry is a student. 

Write twenty sentences. 

13. The elements of thought are ideas. There will be as 
many ideas as there are objects mentally represented, and 
as many kinds of ideas as there are kinds of objects. To 
enumerate all objects, material and immaterial, real and 
imaginary, would be an endless task. Yet they all fall 
into a few classes. 

14. Language is organized or given form by the thought 
it expresses, and thought by the reality it represents. The 
final analysis of science has resolved the outside world into 
matter and motion, and the inside world, into mind and 
thought. That is to say, whether we consider the outside 
or the inside world, there are ultimately but two kinds of 
objects. Let us see what they are. We think of matter 
and mind as things having attributes ; that is, as sub- 
stances. A substance is a thing having attributes. Name 
tiventy substances. Name an attribute of each. We think 
of motion and thought as being, respectively, motion of a 
mover, and thought of a thinker. That is, we think of 
them as attributes. An attribute is any quality of a sub- 
stance. Name twenty attributes. Name a substance of 
which each may be a quality. 

(a) These definitions run in a circle, but it is so of necessity. Things 
can be defined only as they are thought, and neither substance nor attri- 
bute is thinkable except each be thought in terms of the other. 

15. Since, then, reality includes but two general classes 
of objects, substance and attributes, thought must include 



4 GBAMMAE OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

but two general classes of ideas, substance-ideas and attribute- 
ideas. Define each. 

16. This easily leads to an understanding of the nature 
of a thought, — a mental affirmation of the relation between 
substance and attribute ; as, MATTER MOVES, mind thinks. 
What are the necessary elements of a thought ? Certainly 
there are not more than two, a substance-idea and an 
attribute-idea. 

17. We have, therefore, the two correspond ing parts of 
a sentence, — a part to express a substance-idea (Subject), 
and a part to predicate of it or connect with it the 
expression of an attribute idea (Predicate). 

(ci) Beginners in Logic are likely to name three parts 
of a thought, — a subject idea, a predicate idea, and their 
relation. But this relation is the thought itself, and 
certainly a logician would not name a thing as one of 
its own parts. 

(&) Likewise some grammarians name three parts of a 
sentence, — a subject, a predicate, and a copula; but it 
should be kept in mind that the predicate, as the name 
indicates, is the part of the sentence that predicates. Jt 
includes the office of a copula and that of an attribute. 
Thus, in the sentence, George is a farmer, George is the 
subject, and is fanner is the predicate, of which is is the 
copula and fanner is the' attribute. In this sentence, 
the copulative and attributive offices of the predicate are 
expressed by different words; but the two are as com- 
monly expressed by a single word, as in George farm*. 
What are the three parts in this sentence ? 

Besides the subject there is but one word, and it is an 
indivisible part of the sentence. Certainly no one could 
contend that some of the letters of farms are the copula 
and the others the predicate! Any one maintaining that 
there are three elements in a sentence, when asked to 



INTRODUCTION. 5 

point them out in such a sentence as, " George farms," is 
obliged to do it by adroitly leaving it and substituting in 
its stead its equivalent, " George is a farmer." But after 
such a performance it is always in order to insist, What 
are the three elements in this sentence, " George farms " ? 
The answer must be, The subject is " George," the predi- 
cate is "farms," and there are no others. The word 
"farms" does, indeed, have a double office, copulative and 
attributive, as does every predicate whether it contains 
one word or two ; but " farms " is the predicate, and as 
a part of the sentence it is no more divisible than is the 
subject "George." A sentence, then, has but two ele- 
ments, subject and predicate. 

(e) Just as all outer reality is resolvable into matter 
and motion, and all inner reality into mind and thought, 
so language in its early form needs but two parts of 
speech, the noun and the verh. 

Indeed, if one should feel inclined to push the synthesis, 
it could be made plausible that the sentence is itself an 
element not further resolvable ; for there is no such thing 
as a subject without a predicate or a predicate without a 
subject. The sentence is the unit of language. In the 
mental world, the thought is the elemental form of all 
thinking. It is the unit. And if we push on into the 
field of reality, the parallel is perfect, for we do not have 
matter and motion ; we have only matter moving or moving 
matter. There are not the two things mind and thought; 
but only the one thing, mind thinking or thinking mind. 
So it is next to certain that in the very beginning of 
language there were not even two parts of speech, but 
only one. The substantive (subject) was contained in 
the verb, so that a single word expressed an entire 
sentence. Indeed, we find good evidence of this even 
in a highly developed stage of language. For example, 
take amo, meaning I love ; pluit, it rains, etc. 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

PAETS OF SPEECH. 

18. By parts of speech we mean classes of words accord- 
ing to their uses in the sentence. Let us now learn these 
uses and the corresponding parts of speech. Incidentally 
we have already named two, the noun and the verb. 

19. Noun. — Perhaps the most common use of words is 
to name objects. It would be very inconvenient to con- 
verse or write about objects without naming them. A 
noun is a name of an object ; as, Henry, man, Indianapolis, 
city, Ohio, state, St. Lawrence, river. 

(a) Observe again the broad sense of the word object, 
— anything toward which our thought may be directed. 
This includes not only such things as those just named, 
but also such as mind, hope, love, beauty, laziness. 

(b) Any expression that may stand in a sentence as a 
noun, anything that may be made the subject of a sen- 
tence, is called a substantive ; as, To lie is disgraceful ; For 
one to do all his work ivell is difficult ; Hoiv you can be so 
happy when you work so hard puzzles him. 

20. (1) Write the names of twenty objects not named above 
and differing as much as possible. (2) Write a sent* -mr 
about each. (3) Draw a line under each noun. (4) Draw 
a line over each subject and one over each predicate. 

21. Pronoun. — Many times Ave wish to designate an 
object without naming it. This is commonly done by a 
pronoun. I like him and he likes you and her. Here i", 
him, he, you, and her designate the same objects their names 
would. Also, in the sentences, — Who spoke ? and A boy 
that tries learns, — who and that designate objects without 
naming them. Since such words are used instead of nouns, 
they are called pronouns. A pronoun is that part of speech 
used to designate an object tuithout naming it. Or, as it is 
often defined, a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 7 

22. (1) Designate in sentences twenty objects without 
naming them.. (2) Underline each 'pronoun. (3) Overline 
each subject and each predicate. 

23. Verb. — A large class of words is used to assert 
attributes ; as, The wind blows ; The man reels ; The duck 
swims; The boy is tall; The child was sick; The tools 
were dull. All the italicized words are verbs, but they are 
not all alike. The first three not only assert, but also 
express, attributes; the last three only assert attributes 
that are expressed by other words. 

The verb is the part of speech that asserts an attribute. 

(a) The definition is so stated for brevity; infinitives 
and participles, which do not assert but only assume, should 
be classed under verbs. 

(7>) Remember that every sentence contains a verb. 
You may know the verb by its being the part of the sen- 
tence that asserts, affirms, declares, or tells. 

(<?) Remember that every predicate either is a verb or 
contains one. If the verb both asserts and expresses the 
attribute, the predicate is the verb. If the verb only 
asserts the attribute, then the verb together with the word 
or words expressing the attribute constitutes the predicate. 
Make this clear by illustrations. 

24. (1) Name thirty verbs. (2) Use them in sentences, — 
ten of them only asserting attributes, and twenty both assert- 
ing and expressing attributes. (8) Point out the subject 
and the predicate of each sentence ; the asserting part of each 
predicate ; the attributive part; the nouns and pronouns. 

25. Adjectives. — It is often necessary to express an 
attribute without either asserting or naming it. We have 
already learned that when a part of speech both expresses 
and asserts an attribute, it is a verb; and that when it 
expresses an attribute or any other object by naming it, 
it is a noun. We have now to see that it is the office of 



8 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

another class of words to express attributes without either 
asserting or naming them. Such are the italicized words 
in the following sentences : The heavy bull struck the hard 
floor. The old master made the difficult lesson plain t<> his 
little pupil. Such words are adjectives. An adjective is 
the 'part of speech that expresses an attribute of a substance 
without asserting or naming it. 

26. (1) Use in sentences twenty adjectives. (2) Desig- 
nate each. (3) Point out the nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 
(4) Also each subject and predicate. (5) State fully mid 
clearly the office of each italicized word in the following sen- 
tences : The man totters. Frailty is in the man. The man 
is frail. (6) Give the part of speech of each. (7) Why ? 

27. Adverb. — In the sentence, "We watched the slowly 
descending sun," we see that the adjective descend lug 
expresses an attribute of the object sun. We must note 
that the attribute expressed by descending has itself the 
attribute, sloiv. This attribute of an attribute is expressed 
by the word slowly. In "The man greatly surprised us," 
as we have already learned, the verb surprised not only 
asserts, it also expresses an attribute of the man. He was 
a surprising man. Let us see also that the attribute sur- 
prising had the attribute great. The word greatly e x press, -s 
an attribute of an attribute. Such words as slowly and 
greatly are called adverbs. Also, in " He is certainly right," 
and " You are probably mistaken," — certainly and probably 
express the modes in which the mind affirms attributes of 
substances. Words used like certainly and probably are 
also called adverbs. The adverb is the part of speech thai 
expresses either an attribute of an attribute or a mode of 
mental connection. 

(a) Adverbs commonly express attributes of attributes. When they 
do, they may be called common adverbs. When an adverb expresses the 
mode of mental connection, it is called a modal adverb. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 9 

28. (1) Define an Adverb, Common Adverb, Modal Adverb. 

(2) Use in sentences ten modal adverbs and twenty common 
adverbs. (3) Explain carefully why each is so called. 
(4) Draw lines over the subjects and predicates. (5) Point 
out each noun, pronoun, verb, and adjective, and tell why 
each is so called. 

29 . Preposition. — The verb is the chief relational element 
in language. Whether it only asserts, as in " Maude is 
a singer," or both asserts and expresses an attribute, as in 
" Maude sings," it always expresses a relation between 
substance and attribute. It is the only part of speech 
that can affirm relation. Two other parts of speech, how- 
ever, can express relation. In "The gentleman by me 
came for him," by expresses the relation between the gen- 
tleman and myself; and for expresses the relation between 
the act of coming and the object represented by the pro- 
noun him. It may be observed also that each of these 
words governs a substantive called its object. That is, 
it requires that substantive to be in the objective case. 
The pronouns me and him are respectively the objects of by 
and for. Words that express relation without affirming it 
and govern objects are called prepositions. The preposition 
is the part of speech that expresses relation without affirming 
it and governs a substantive called its object. 

30. (1) Use in sentences twenty-five prepositions. (2) 
Designate each and the parts it relates. Draw a line over 
each subject and each predicate. (3) Point out the nouns, 
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. (4) Grive your 
reason for thinking each is what you call it. 

31. Conjunctions. — In "He and I came," "She or he 
will go," " Paul is strong but Peter is weak," the italicized 
words express relations. In this respect they resemble 
verbs and prepositions. Unlike verbs, they do not affirm 
relation ; and unlike both verbs and prepositions, they 



10 GBAMMAll OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

have no governing power over substantives. Words that 
express relations without affirming them and that are 
without a governing power over substantives are called 
conjunctions. The conjunction is the part of speech that 
lacks a governing poiver and expresses relation without 
affirming it. 

32. Use in sentences ten conjunctions. (2) Designate the 
parts each relates or connects. (3) Point out .adjects, 
predicates, nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, and 
prepositions. (4) Grive reasons. . (5) How are verbs, prep- 
ositions, and conjunctions alike ? (6) In what respect is 
the verb like the preposition and unlike the conjunction f 
(7) In what respect is the preposition like the conjunction 
and unlike the verb? (8) Justify your ansivers by reference 
to the sentences you have ivritten. 

33. Interjection. — If we observe our thoughts caref ully, 
we shall see that feelings are thrown in between them. 
These feelings are expressed by words called interjections. 
The interjection is the part of speech that expresses the 
isolated feelings thrown in between thoughts. Such words 
as ah, ha, and bah are interjections. 

34. Name ten other interjections and tell what feeling 
each expresses. 

(a) If we adhere closely to the definition of language, 
the expression of thought, the interjection cannot be re- 
garded as a part of speech ; but without it we should not 
be able to express all that takes place in our mental 
processes. 

(5) The excessive use of interjections indicates that the 
thought process is abnormally interrupted. 

35. Expletives. — Any word in our language may be put 
into one of these eight classes, but there are a few words 
that are often merely introductory and without grammati- 
cal dependence. Those most frequently used are and, for, 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 11 

that, there; as, "And it came to pass." "And I say unto 
you." "For him to act so is a disgrace to his parents." 
"There is none good but one." "And there was in their 
synagogue a man with an unclean spirit." "And there 
came a voice from heaven." " That he did the mischief 
is settled." "But I say unto you, that Elias is indeed 
come." Such words are called Introductory expletives. 

36. Name the 'part of speech to which each word in the 
folloiving sentences belongs : 

(1) Then Jesus answered and said, faithless and perverse genera- 
tion, how long shall I be with you ? how long shall I suffer you ? bring 
him hither to me. 

(2) And when he saw a fig tree in the way, he came to it, and found 
nothing thereon, but leaves only, and said unto it, Let no fruit grow on 
thee henceforward forever. And presently the fig tree withered away. 

(3) For what shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world 
and lose his own soul ? 

(4) The Son of man indeed goeth, as it is written of him : but woe to 
that man by whom the Son of man is betrayed! good were it for that man 
if he had never been born. 

(5) And when the Sabbath was past, Mary Magdalene, and Mary the 
mother of James, and Salome, had brought sweet spices, that they might 
come and anoint him. 

37. It may be seen from the following that all the parts 
of speech may be grouped under five classes: 



[(1) Nouns. 

ronouns. 



(a) Substantives. < 

(b) Verbs (3) (f 1 ^ 6 " f Infinitives. 

I In-nnite. i -p, ,. . -, 

[ I articiples. 



(<?) Modifiers. 



fC-A) Adjectives. 
1(5) Adverbs. 



. 7X „ . -r>7- , (6) Preposition. 

(a) Connective or Kelati on words. { ^_ N ~ 

( (7) Conjunction. 

(e) Independent ivords. 



f(8) Interjections. 
( Expletives. 



12 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



PEOPEETIES OF THE PAETS OF SPEECH. 

38. Property is any modification of the sentential force of a 
part of speech. It is sometimes called Grammatical Form 
or Modification. 

39. Thus number, a mode of distinguishing one from 
more than one, is a property of nouns and pronouns ; as, 
book, books ; I, we, 

40. Tense, a mode of denoting time, is a property of the 
verb. (Walk — walked.) 

41. Comparison, a mode of denoting degrees of quality, 
is a property of adjectives and adverbs. Long — longer 
— longest. 

42. The following are all the properties of the parts 
of speech. 

\* ,„ , \ Properties of nouns, pronouns, and verbs. 

(2) Number J 

(3) Gender 1 _, . . 

,' „ V Properties of nouns and pronouns. 

(4) Case J 

(5) Voice "I 

(6) Mode \ Properties of verbs. 

(7) Tense J 

(8) Comparison — A property of adjectives and adverbs. 

The preposition, the conjunction, and the interjection have no gram- 
matical properties. 

43. Inflection is any variation in form a part of speech 
undergoes to denote grammatical property. It may be 
(1) by a change in the ending, (2) by different words, 
(3) by the addition of auxiliaries. 

44. Sometimes a property is indicated by the position 
of a word in a sentence. 

(a) Declension is inflection of nouns and pronouns. 
(7>) Comparison is inflection of adjectives and adverbs. 
(c~) Conjugation or Synopsis is the inflection of verbs. 



PARSING. 13 

45. Exercise. — Tell the Part of Speech to ivliich each 
word belongs, and, if you knoiv them, name its properties; 
name the properties that belong to each. 

1. The liberty of the press is the highest safeguard to all free govern- 
ment. 2. Ours could not exist without it. 3. It is like a great, exalting, 
and abounding river. 4. It is fed by the dews of heaven, which distil 
their sweetest drops to form it. 5. It gushes from the rill, as it breaks 
from, the deep caverns of the earth. 6. It is augmented by a thousand 
affluents, that clash from the mountain top to separate again into a thou- 
sand bounteous and irrigating streams around. 7. On its broad bosom it 
bears a thousand barks. 8. There genius spreads its purpling sail. 
9. There poetry dips its silver oar. 10. There art, invention, discovery, 
science, morality, religion, may safely and securely float. 11. It wanders 
through every land. 12. It is a genial, cordial source of thought and in- 
spiration wherever it touches, whatever it surrounds. 13. Upon its bor- 
ders there grows every flower of grace and every fruit of truth. 14. Sir, 
I am not here to deny that that river sometimes oversteps its bounds. 
15. I am not here to deny that that stream sometimes becomes a danger- 
ous torrent, and destroys towns and cities upon its bank. 16. But I am 
here to say that without it, civilization, humanity, government, all that 
makes society itself, would disappear, and the world would return to its 
ancient barbarism. — E. D. Baker. 

PARSING. 

46. Parsing is naming in order the part of speech to 
ivhich a word belongs, its class, its properties, its construction, 
and the rule governing the construction. 

(a) Parsing is an excellent exercise for leading beginners to distinguish 
the parts of speech and to determine their relation. 

(6) By construction of a word is meant its dependence on some other, 
its government. 

(c) The abridged parsing may be oral ; the complete parsing may be 
either oral or written. In all written parsing see that the spelling, punc- 
tuation, and capitals are correct. 

47. Abridged Model for All the Parts of Speech. 
1. Species. 2. Construction. 3. Rule. 

(a) See Rules on page 224. 



14 GKAMMAH OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(1) 0, how well Mottle and Susan play upon their new 
instruments. 

is an interjection ; it has no grammatical construc- 
tion, R. XVII. 

Well is an adverb and limits play, R. XI. 

Mattie is a noun, subject oi play, R. I. 

And is a conjunction and connects Mattie and Susan, 
R. XII. 

Play is a verb and agrees with its subjects Mattie and 
Susan, R. XV. 

Upon is a preposition and shows the relation between 
instruments and play, R. XIII. 

Their is a pronoun and limits instruments, R. VIII. 

New is an adjective and limits instruments, R. X. 



SUBJECTS, AGENTS, VERBS, ACTIONS, AND OBJECTS. 

48. We must be careful to mark the folloAving impor- 
tant distinctions : In the sentence, " Bob cut the tree," 
" cut " is a verb representing a real action ; " Bob " is the 
subject representing a real agent; and "tree " is the object 
of "cut" and represents the real tree that was the object 
of the act of cutting. Observe that an agent performs an 
action upon an object. The agent is the doer of the act, 
and the thing upon which the act terminates is the object 
or receiver of the act. Now we are thinking and speak- 
ing of reality. But if we talk of language, we say that in 
our sentence, cut is a verb, its subject is Bob, and its object 
is tree. Here we speak of words, not things. 

49. The object of a verb always expresses the object of 
an action ; but as we shall better understand later, the 
object of an action is not always represented by the object 
of a verb but sometimes by its subject ; and the agent of 



PREDICATE- ATTRIBUTES AND OBJECTS. 15 

an action is not always represented by the subject of a 
verb, but sometimes by the object of a preposition. 

50. With reference to the statements made above, dis- 
cuss the italicized words in the following sentences : — 

(1) Matilda broke her vase. 

(2) The sheds were blown down by the storm. 



PKEDICATE-ATTEIBUTES AND OBJECTS. 

51. By attribute we mean primarily a quality attributed 
to a substance. We say transparency is an attribute of 
glass. But the word attribute is also a language term, 
meaning an attributive expression, that is, the expression 
of an attribute or group of attributes. Thus, in the sen- 
tences, " Glass is transparent," " The old man is infirm," 
and " Ruth is an artist," we say transparent is an attribute 
of glass ; old and infirm are attributes of man, and artist is 
an attribute of Ruth. When an attribute completes a 
predicate, it is called a predicate- attribute. This is the 
same as to say transparent is an attributive modifier of 
glass ; and old and infirm are attributive modifiers of mam. 
In this sense attributive is often used instead of attribute. 

52. We have learned that the term object is applied both 
to the reality that receives an action, and to the word that 
expresses this reality and at the same time completes a 
transitive verb. We have seen also that the term attri- 
bute refers both to a quality attributed to a substance and 
to the word that expresses this quality. We must now be 
careful to distinguish the terms object and attribute as used 
in grammar. 

53. An Object is any expression completing a transitive 
verb and expressing the receiver of an action. 

54. A Predicate- Attribute is any attributive expression that 
completes a copulative verb. 



16 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(a) An object is always a noun or an expression used as a noun ; that 
is, it is always a substantive. 

(b) A predicate-attribute is always an adjective or a noun, or an ex- 
pression so used. 

55. Distinguish the objects and predicate-attribute* in — 

(1) Men love pleasure. (6) We like to sing. 

(2) The sun is golden. (7) They are without help. 

(3) It is unbelievable. (8) The question is, Who did it ? 
(I) John lost his hat. (9) I know that he will come. 
(5) It is surprising. (10) We are in need. 

56. Complements. 

(1) Children play. (5) Some men are agreeable. 

(2) Flowers bloom. (6) Smith is a detective. 

(3) God created the world. (7) She became ill. 

(I) Birds build nests. (8) George became a scholar. 

57. By comparing the first two of these sentences with 
the last six, it will be observed that some verbs like play 
and bloom are complete in themselves, while others like 
created, build, are, is, and became, require the addition of 
other words like world, nests, agreeable, detective, ill, and 
scholar to complete their meaning. Verbs may therefore 
be divided into complete and incomplete. Again, it may be 
seen that some incomplete verbs like created and build 
require objects — words that represent recipients of action 
— to complete them ; while other verbs like the last four 
require attributes — words expressing qualities. 

(a) In the sentences given above play and bloom are intransitive and 
attributive ; created and build are transitive and attributive ; are, is, and 
became are intransitive and copulative; and in "She was considered 
honest," and " He was appointed captain," the verbs are transitive and 
copulative. 

58. (1) A verb that represents the action of an agent as 
affecting an object is Transitive. 

59. (2) A verb that does not represent the action of an 
agent as affecting an object is Intransitive. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 17 

60. (3) A verb that requires an attribute of its subject to 
complete it is Copulative. 

61. (4) A verb that does not require an attribute of its 
subject to complete it is Attributive. 

62. (5) WJiatever completes an incomplete verb is a Com- 
plement. 

63. (6) The object that completes a transitive verb is an 
Objective Complement. 

64. (7) The attribute that completes a copulative verb is 
an Attributive Complement. 

65. In the following sentences tell whether the verbs are 
attributive or copulative, transitive or intransitive ; designate 
each complement and tell tvhether it is objective or attributive. 

(1) Columbus discovered America. 

(2) God said, Let there be light, and there was light. 
(8) She thought I was mistaken. 

(4) Milton wrote Paradise Lost. 

(5) She was made secretary of the convention. 

(6) Slang never becomes a lady or gentleman. 

(7) He was reported absent. 

(8) It is good for us to be here. 

(9) Whatever is, is right. 

(10) He became President after he had served several terms in the 
Senate. 

(1) Ask ten good questions on articles 51-65. (2) An- 
swer them. 

KIMS OF SENTENCES. 

66. Observing the attitude of our thoughts toward the 
realities they represent, we see that some of them are 
merely intellectual declarations, some are emotional connec- 
tions, some are questions, and others represent real relations 
as not yet established, but to be requested or demanded of 
some agent. We have, therefore, four kinds of sentences as 
to use : — 

67. A Declarative Sentence is one that merely affirms a 
relation; as "John has a bird in his pocket." 



18 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

68. An Exclamatory Sentence is one that expresses the 
feeling aroused by apprehending a relation; as, "John has 
a bird in his pocket ! " 

69. An Interrogative Sentence is one that inquires as to 
the existence of a relation; as, "Has John a bird in his 
pocket?" 

70. An Imperative Sentence is one that requests or deynands 
the establishment of a relation; as, " John, have a bird in 
your pocket." 

71. Observing also the form of our thoughts, some are 
isolated or single, others are closely connected but coor- 
dinate, and others are dependent one upon another. Their 
expression gives us three kinds of sentences as to form: — 

72. A Simple Sentence is the expression of a single thought ; 
as, " The flowers are fragrant." 

73. A Compound Sentence is one that expresses two or more 
connected but coordinate thoughts ; as, " The flowers are 
fragrant and the rain has nourished them." 

74. A Complex Sentence is one that expresses a principal 
thought together with one or more subordinate thoughts 
depending upon it ; as, " The flowers are fragrant because 
the rain has nourished them." 

(a) In the last example, " The flowers are fragrant " 
expresses the principal thought, and "the rain has nour- 
ished them," the subordinate thought. 

(b) In a complex sentence, the sentence expressing the 
principal thought is called the principal sentence, and any 
one expressing a subordinate thought is a subordinate sen- 
tence or clause. 

75. Classes of Sentences. 

(1) AS TO FORM : 

(a) Simple. — Paul walks. 

(b) Compound. — Paul walks and Peter rides. 

(c) Complex. — Paul walks because Peter rides. 



KINDS OF SENTENCES. 19 

(2) AS TO USE : — 

(d) Declarative. — The "boys are honest. 

(e) Interrogative. — Are the boys honest ? 
(/) Exclamatory. — The boys are honest ! 
(g) Imperative. — Boys, be honest. 

76. Classify each of the following sentences according to 



(1) The last of all the Bards was he. 

(2) Slavery they can have anywhere. 

(3) When should education be commenced ? 

(4) Stand by your convictions. 

(5) What a contrast these boys present ! 

77. Classify each of the following sentences according to 
form : — 

(1) In the sands of Africa and Arabia the camel is valuable. 

(2) The gain is doubtful but the danger is certain. 

(3) Let us live while we live. 

(4) The harvest is plenteous, but the laborers are few. 

(5) Except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. 

78. Classify each of the following sentences according to 
both form and use : — 

(1) The decision of the judge increased the irritation of the people. 

(2) A truly great man borrows no lustre from splendid ancestry. 

(3) Study to acquire a habit of accurate expression. 

(4) He that is giddy thinks the world turns round. 

(5) Forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors. 

(6) Now stir the fire and close the shutters fast. 

(7) It is one thing to be well informed ; it is another to be wise. 

(8) What thrilling experiences this old oak might utter if it could 
speak ! 

(9) The song that moves a nation's heart is in itself a deed. 
(10) It is good for a man that he bear the yoke in his youth. 

79. Write : — 

(1) three simple sentences, (4) three declarative sentences, 

(2) three compound sentences, (5) three interrogative sentences, 

(3) three complex sentences, (6) three exclamatory sentences, 

(7) three imperative sentences. 



20 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

PHKASES. 

80. A Phrase is any group of words forming a modifier 
that is not a sentence; as, 

"The history of our country is full of thrilling events.' 1 '' "The men 
came with great clamor to drive the wolves away/row» the flock.'''' 

(a) Any part of speech together with its modifiers may properly be 
called a phrase, which is named from its chief word or basis. Thus 
according to basis we may have a noun phrase, as, " The little boy 
cried"; a verb phrase, as, " George stood by the old elm"; an adjective 
phrase, as, "Grammar is very interesting"; an adverbial phrase, as, 
"We advance very rapidly" ; an infinitive phrase, as, "He likes to walk 
rapidly' 1 ' 1 ; a participial phrase, as, "The dog coming toward tis is 
Major" ; a prepositional phrase, as, "The captain stands by his men." 
We may even speak of an interjection phrase, as, " Alas for maiden" ; 
or a conjunction phrase, as, "John as well as Susan was mistaken." 

(b) In the following classification only two kinds of phrases as to 
basis are considered, prepositional and infinitive. 

(c) The word modifier is used in a very broad sense. Ordinarily we 
speak only of adjective, adverbial, and objective modifiers. In "Those 
bad boys tease us constantly," bad is an adjective modifier of boys; us 
and constantly are modifiers of tease. Us is objective, and constantly, 
adverbial. But we may as correctly say that a verb modifies its object 
as that the object modifies its verb. When we say an object modifies its 
verb, we mean the object expresses the recipient of the verb's action ; and 
to say a verb modifies its object means that it determines the case relation 
and often the form of its object. With equal correctness we may say 
a subject modifies its verb, and a verb modifies both its subject and its 
attributive complement. In "You are he," you determines the form of 
are, and are in turn determines the form of both you and he. 

81. Classes of Phrases. 

(1) AS TO FORM : — 

(a) Simple. — We left in the evening. 

(6) Compound. — To direct well and to do well are different 
things. He came in the morning, at noon, and at night. 

(c) Complex. — The kite flew over the tops of the trees. 

(2) AS TO BASTS : — 

(d) Prepositional. — The city of Brooklyn is in the state of 

New York. 

(e) Infinitive. — He came to learn. He asks permission to remain. 



21 



(3) As TO USE : 



(/) Adjective. — The road through the valley is rough. All 

have the right to vote, 
(g) Adverbial. — He does his work with care. 
(A) Substantive. — To forgive is divine. He likes to be let 



82. A Simple Phrase is a single phrase. 

83. A Compound Phrase is one consisting of two or more 
coordinate phrases. 

84. A Complex Phrase is one some modifier in which is a 
prepositional or infinitive phrase. 

85. A Prepositional Phrase is one whose basis is a preposi- 
tion and its object. 

86. An Infinitive Phrase is one whose basis is an infinitive. 

87. An Adjective Phrase is one used as an adjective. 

88. An Adverbial Phrase is one used as an adverb. 

89. A Substantive Phrase is one used as a noun. 

(a) A prepositioDal phrase is not often used substantively. 

90. In the following sentences, classify each phrase, 
(1) as to form, (2) as to basis, and (3) as to use. 

(1) To see is to believe. 

(2) "He came to learn and to improve his health. 

(3) We do not wish to detract from your reputation. 

(4) They have been invited to unite with our class. 

(5) I got the information in the letter from your father. 

(6) To succeed in covering up a fault is harder than to keep from 
committing it. 

91. Write sentences containing : — 

(1) three simple phrases, (5) three infinitive phrases, 

(2) three compound phrases, (6) three adjective phrases, 

(3) three complex phrases, (7) three adverbial phrases, 

(4) three prepositional phrases, (8) three substantive phrases. 



22 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

CLAUSES. 

92. A clause is any group of words forming a sentence 
that is used as a modifier ; as, He came when he was wanted. 
She said that she was hungry. The horse that died yester- 
day was worth five thousand dollars. 

(a) The word clause is often used as a synonym for sentence, but 
throughout this book it will be used in accordance with the definition giveo 
above, to signify a subordinate sentence. 

(6) Be careful to distinguish a phrase from a clause. Both are modi- 
fiers. They are unlike in that a clause always contains a subject and 
predicate, while a phrase does not. 

(c) A clause may contain a phrase, as in "A house that is set <>n a hill 
cannot be hid" ; or a phrase may contain a clause, as in, " We were 
talking about how it happened.' 1 '' 

CLASSES OP CLAUSES. 

93. (1) As TO FORM : — 

(a) Simple. — That he was wrong is evident. 

(b) Compound. — That he ivas wrong and that he knew it is 

evident. 

(c) Complex. — That he was wrong when he said it is evident. 

94. (2) As to use: — 

(d) Adjective. — Here is the boy that is sick. 

(e) Adverbial. — He lies where he fell. 

(/) Substantive. — He thinks that I am not honest. 
How he did it is a mystery. 
His motto is, All men .should nor/,: 
His motto, Most men may be trusted, is a 
safe one. 

95. A Simple Clause is a single clause. 

96. A Compound Clause is one consisting of two <>r more 
coordinate clauses. 

97. A Complex Clause is one some modifier in which is a 
clause. 

98. An Adjective Clause is one used as an adjective. 

99. An Adverbial Clause is one used as an adverb. 



PUNCTUATION. 23 

100. A Substantive Clause is one used as a noun. 

101. In the folloiving sentences classify each clause. 
(1) as to form, and (2) as to use. 

(1) We must seek shelter, for the storm is near. 

(2) They that are whole need not a physician. 

(3) When I was a child I spoke as children speak. 

(4) He is the gentleman that I met in Washington when I went to see 
you. 

(5) That he should have failed when all the conditions were so 
favorable, is hard to understand. 

(6) Who does not believe that he will do what he promises ? 

102. Write sentences containing: — 

(1) three simple clauses, (4) three adjective clauses, 

(2) three compound clauses, (5) three adverbial clauses, 

(3) three complex clauses, (6) three substantive clauses. 

CAPITALS. 

103. A Capital Letter should begin : — 

(1) The first word of every sentence. 

(2) The first word of every line of poetry. 

(3) The first word of every direct quotation. 

(4) All proper nouns and proper adjectives. 

(5 ) Names of things personified. 

(6) Names of the days of the week and of the months of the year ; but 
not of the seasons. 

(7) All words used as titles or particular names. 

(8) All words referring to the Supreme Being. 

(9) The pronoun 7, the interjection O, and single letters forming ab- 
breviations should be capitals. 

PUNCTUATION 

104. Punctuation is the art of indicating the construction 
of the different parts of the sentence. 

105. A. Terminal Marks : — 

The period ..... 
The interrogation mark . . ? 

The exclamation mark . . ! 



24 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

106. The Period is used at the end of a declarative or an 

imperative sentence. 

(a) The period is used within a sentence after all abbreviations, after 
any expression used as a heading, and after figures or letters used to mark 
the sections or parts of a production. 

107. The Interrogation Mark is used at the end of an 
interrogative sentence. 

(a) The interrogation mark may be used after any word in the sen- 
tence to denote uncertainty or to imply the opposite of what is expressed. 

108. The Exclamation Mark is used at the end of an 
exclamatory sentence. 

(a) It is often used within a sentence after an interjection or any 
other exclamatory word. 

109. B. Marks used within the sentence : — 

The comma , 

The semicolon ; 

» 

The colon : 

(a) Only those most frequently used, and only the principal uses of 
each are named here. 

110. General Rule for the Comma. — Use a comma when 
the omission of it would render the construction of some part 
of the sentence obscure. 

1. To separate elements having the same construction : — 

Intelligence, integrity, industry, are the elements of success. Our 
hopes and fears, pleasures and pains, make up the interesting side of life. 
From night till morning, from morning till night, she whiled her miser- 
able life away. When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a 
child, I thought as a child. 

Exception. — When two elements are closely connected by a con- 
junction, no comma is needed ; as, " Learning expands and elevates the 
mind." 

2. To set off appositive, explanatory, parenthetical, or 
introductory, words, phrases, or clauses : — 



PUNCTUATION. 25 

Dickens, the great novelist, is a teacher of human nature. The mind, 
which studies all things, should study itself most. He that can think, 
and all can do that, need not be lonely. To speak plainly, I do not care 
to associate with him. 

3. To mark the omission of a verb : — 

The wise man considers what he wants ; the fool, what he abounds in. 

111. General Rule for the Semicolon. — Use a semicolon 
betiveen elements less closely connected than those separated 
by a comma. 

It is the first point of wisdom to avoid evil ; the second, to make it 
good. Improve every minute ; for time lost is lost forever. 

112. General Rule for the Colon. — The colon is used to 
precede a supplemental or explanatory remark. 

I admire the sublime passage : " God said, Let there be light, and there 
was light." 

EXERCISE IN PUNCTUATION AND CAPITALIZATION. 

113. (1) Observe closely the capitals and punctuation 
of everything you read. 

(2) Punctuate and capitalize correctly every sentence 
you write. 

114. In the folloiving Review, let ansivers be given in 
complete and correct sentences : — 

A. (1) Define object. (2) Name two kinds. (3) Illustrate. (4) De- 
fine idea. (5) What is it to think ? (6) Define a thought. (7) What 
is language ? (8) How do we come to have language ? (9) What is a 
language ? (10) How is it that we have different languages f (11) Illus- 
trate. (12) How many may there be ? (18) Name six. (14) State 
clearly the two directions of the language process. (15) Name them. 
(16) Define each. (17) State the relation between them. (18) What is 
the unit of language? (19) Why? (20) Define a sentence. (21) What 
are the elements of thought ? (22) How many ideas are possible ? 
(23) What gives form to language ? (24) What gives form to thought? 
(25) Explain. (26) Show how all objects, both material and immaterial, 
fall into two classes. (27) Name and define each. (28) Show how, 
according to this classification, mind and matter belong to the same class. 
(29) How are thought and motion alike ? (30) What, then, are the two 



26 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

elements of every thought ? (31) Define each. (32) Why not three ? 
(33) What are two corresponding parts of every sentence ? (34) Define 
and illustrate each. (35) Why not three f 

B. In reality, a sentence , instead of having three parts v 
or even two parts, is an inseparable unity. 

(1) Explain. (2) Make similar statements about a thought and reality. 
(3) Explain. (4) What is meant by parts of speech ? (5) What parts 
of speech are indispensable in all expression ? (6) Explain your state- 
ment. 

C. Observing strictly the following order : — 

(1) State seven offices that words must perform, 

(2) Name the corresponding parts of speech, stating defi- 

nitely their respective offices, and 

(3) Define each part of speech. 

(1) In what sense is an interjection a part of speech ? (2) In what 
sense is it not ? (3) What is an expletive ? (4) What words are most 
used as expletives ? 

D. Arrange all the parts of speech under five classes. 

(1) Define property. (2) Illustrate. (3) Name all grammatical 
properties, and tell to what part of speech each belongs. (4) Define 
inflection. (5) Illustrate. (6) What is parsing ? (7) What is it to 
give the construction of a word? (8) Distinguish subject and agent. 
(9) Illustrate. (10) Distinguish verb and action. (11) Illustrate. 

(12) Distinguish the object of a verb and the object of an action. 

(13) State their relation. (14) State the relation between the subject of 
a verb and the agent of an act. (15) What are the two uses of the word 
attribute? (16) Define predicate-attribute. (17) Illustrate. (18) Dis- 
tinguish object and predicate-attribute. (19) Illustrate. (20) Each may 
be what part of speech ? (21) Illustrate. (22) Define complete verbs. 
(23) Incomplete verbs. (24) Transitive verbs. (25) Intransitive verbs. 
(26) Copulative verbs. (27) Attributive verbs. (28) Complement. 
(29) Name, define, and illustrate two kinds of complements. (30) Name 
and explain two thought bases that give rise to classes of sentences. 
(31) Name, define, and illustrate each kind of sentence as to use. (32) As 
to form. 

E. Referring to the outline of sentences, Article 75, 
illustrate : — 



PUNCTUATION. 27 

ad, ae, of, ag ; 
bd, be, bf, bg ; 

cd, ce, of, eg. 

(1) Define a phrase. (2) Illustrate. (3) Name, define, and illustrate 
each of the following kinds of phrases : noun, verb, adjective, adverbial, 
infinitive, participial, prepositional, interjection, conjunction. (4) Ex- 
plain the broad use of the word modifier. (5) Name, define, and illus- 
trate the kinds of phrases (a) as to form, (b) as to basis, (c) as to use. 

F. Referring to the outline of phrases, Article 81, 
illustrate : — 

adf, bdf, edf; aef, bef, eef ; 

adg, bdg, edg ; aeg, beg, eeg ; 
adh, bdh, cdh; aeh, bell, ceh. 

(1) Define a clause. (2) Illustrate. (3) Distinguish a clause from a 
phrase. (4) Show which may be contained in the other. (5) Name, 
define, and illustrate the kinds of clauses (a) as to form, (b) as to use. 

G. Referring to the outline of clauses, Articles 93 and 
94, illustrate : — 

ad, 'bd, cd ; 

ae, be, ce ; 
of, bf, cf. 

(1) Name and illustrate five uses of capital letters. (2) Name and 
illustrate one use of each of the marks most commonly used in punctuation. 



PAETS OF SPEECH. 

THE XOUN. 

115. Having made a general examination of the sen- 
tence as a whole, we are now ready for a more thorough 
investigation of each of the Parts of Speech that form it. 
We shall begin with the Noun. 

116. A Noun it the name of an object; as, Kate, James, 
Columbus, Brooklyn, water, farmer, angel, world, mind, flock, 
thought, love, brightness, Mary Jane Porter. 

(a) Any word, sign, phrase, or clause, may be used as a noun ; as, 
+ , — , x , and -=- are mathematical signs. There was Tom with his " How 
do you do ?" and " What can I do for you ?" 

Such expressions have the uses of nouns only so far as their relation 
to other words is concerned, but they are rather things than names of 
things. So upon this ground there may be objection to calling them 
nouns, but there can be no objection to calling them substantives. 

A Substantive is any word or combination of words that may stand 
as the subject of a verb. 

CLASSES OP NOUNS. 

117. There are two ways of naming any object : — 

(1) We may give it a name merely to denote the class 
to which it belongs ; as. boy, planet, city, river, people, 
state, — Common or Class Name. 

(2) We ma}' give it a name that will distinguish it from 
others of its class; as, George, Mars, London, Orinoco, Eng- 
lish, Ohio, — Particular or Individual Name. 

118. We Lave, therefore, two general classes of Nouns, — 
Common and Proper. 

28 



CLASSES OF NOUNS. 29 

119. A Common Noun is a name given, to an object merely 
to denote the class to which it belongs; as, hunter, woman, 
mountains, book. 

120. A Proper Noun is a name given to an object to dis- 
tinguish it from others of its class ; as, Daniel Boone, Queen 
Victoria, BocJcys, Standard Dictionary. 

(a) It may readily be seen that a noun usually proper may become 
common, and that a noun usually common may become proper. In 

the sentence, '■'■Daniel Webster was a great statesman," Daniel Webster 
is a proper noun, used to distinguish one particular man from all other 
men; but when we say, "Where are the Daniel Websters of to-day?" 
Daniel Webster is used to name a class to which may be admitted any 
one having certain of Webster's characteristics ; it is therefore a class 
name or common noun. And in the sentence, "I saw an old man" man 
is a common noun, used merely to denote the class to which the object 
belongs; but when the rude boy says, " The Old Man knows nothing 
about it," he has very improperly used a proper noun. The Old Man 
here denotes a particular person, the boy's father. We may say then, — 

(1) A proper noun becomes common when it ceases to dis- 
tinguish its object from others of the same class; as, "the 
Ccesars," "the Ciceros," "the Beethovens." Such expres- 
sions are the same as " the warriors," "the orators," "the 
musicians." " Some mute inglorious Milton here may rest." 
"Bolivar was the Washington of South America." "He 
may succeed tolerably, but he is neither a Solomon nor a 
Samson." 

(2) A common noun becomes proper when it is used to dis- 
tinguish any particular object from others of the same class ; 
as, "Boatman, do not tarry." 

(a) A common noun has meaning and can be defined. A proper noun 
is merely a symbol, or sign, of an object ; it is without meaning and 
cannot therefore be defined. At first a proper noun has a meaning, on 
account of which it is selected to represent its object ; but the signification 
is soon lost. 

(6) Our language has more than 40,000 common nouns, and the num- 
ber may be increased as new classes of objects are formed. We have 



30 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

almost an unlimited number of proper nouns. There are more than 80,000 
names of places alone. 

(c) Two or more words are often used to form one name ; as, New 
York City, Webster's International Dictionary, Dr. David Starr Jordan. 
Parse such combinations as single nouns. 

(d) It is often difficult to distinguish a common from a proper noun. 
In "Sunday follows Saturday," and " Mercury, Venus, and Earth are 
planets," the italicized nouns are proper; but in "He preaches every 
Sunday,''' 1 and "The sun shines on the earth," they are common. (Let 
the pupil show why by applying the definitions of common and proper 
nouns.) 

121. The Proper Noun has no subclasses. The Common 
Noun may, for convenience, be divided into three subclasses, 
Collective, Abstract, and Class. 

(a) All verbal nouns are abstract. 

A Collective Noun is one ivhose singidar form may repre- 
sent a group of objects ; as, flock, herd, swarm. 

(a) A collective noun always represents a group of animate objects. 
Such nouns as pile, heap, and bunch, although they suggest collections of 
objects, are not collective. 

(b) A collective noun may refer to its object in either of two ways : — 

(1) Singly, separately, individually ; 

(2) Collectively, as one unit, one whole in which the individuals are 
lost sight of. 

In the first use, the gender of the noun is determined by the sex of the 
objects represented, and the verb and pronoun referring to it should be 
plural ; as, " Your club have silver buckles on their caps." In the second 
of these uses, the collective noun is of the neuter gender ; it would there- 
fore require a singular verb, and a singular, neuter pronoun ; as, " Your 
club beats ours every time it tries." 

This is a very important distinction. No student can speak with 
assurance till he has mastered it. 

(c) When a collective noun is pluralized, it usually becomes a class 
noun of the neuter gender; as, "There were seven or eight swarms," 
Here the individuals are lost sight of. But a collective noun may be used 
in the plural number so as to refer to the individuals ; as, "All day the 
regiments were calling on their commander." " The herds all wear silver 
bells on their necks." 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 31 

122. An Abstract Noun is the name of an object conceived 
as a quality of another object ; as, the softness of velvet, the 
drunkenness of the city, the honesty of the man. 

(a) The following are a few of our abstract nouns : Time, space, life, 
death, hope, virtue, wisdom, magnitude, disease, war, peace, government, 
youth, goodness, happiness, beauty, sorrow, murder, revenge, cold, heat, 
whiteness, softness, hardness, brightness, darkness, motion, rest, flight, 
silence, existence, height, depth, growth, custom, fashion, strife, honor, 
glory, industry, economy, indolence, grandeur, religion, knowledge, hon- 
esty, deception, drunkenness, poverty, destiny, ambition, power. To these 
must be added all names of actions. 

(b) It must not be understood that such words are always abstract 
nouns. Any one of them may be used in either of two ways : — 

(1) To name an attribute of an object ; 

(2) To name an object as having attributes. 

In the first of these uses it is an abstract noun ; as, " His disease was 
fatal," " Your silence is my answer." In the second use it is a mere class 
noun, or, as it is often more appropriately called, a concrete noun; as, 
'■'■Disease is to be dreaded," " Silence is sometimes more eloquent than 
speech," " She is a beauty" " Death comes to us all alike." 

123. Class Nouns are all those not included in the other 
divisions ; as, girl, man, house, knife. 



124. PKOPEKTIES OP NOUNS. 

(1) I, Theodore Roosevelt, do issue this proclamation. 

(2) Theodore Roosevelt, you are President. 

(3) The President is Theodore Roosevelt. 

(4) One good book is better than many bad books. 

(5) A boy and a girl tore the child's hat. 

125. By observing the italicized words in these five sen- 
tences, we may see : — 

First, — Nouns may denote the speaker, the person 
spoken to, or the object spoken of, as the noun, Theodore 
Roosevelt, does, respectively, in (1), (2), and (3). This 
property is called Person. 



6Z GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

Second, — A noun may stand for one object or for more 
than one ; as book and books in (4). This property is called 
Number. 

Third, — A noun may denote an object of the male sex, 
an object of the female sex, an object with sex not definitely 
specified, or an object without sex. This property is Gender. 

Fourth, — A noun may stand in any one of several dif- 
ferent relations to the part of the sentence that governs it. 
For example, it may be the subject of a finite verb, like 
President in (3), book in (4), and boy and girl in (5). 
This is called a Nominative Relation. It may be the object 
of a verb, like proclamation in (1), and hat in (5). This 
is called an Objective Relation. Also, it may limit another 
noun so as to denote possession. This is called a Possessive 
Relation. This property, depending upon the relation of a 
noun to the part of the sentence that governs it, is Case. 

(a) Only the simplest form of each relation is given here. There are 
several nominative constructions, several objective constructions, and 
two possessive constructions. 

(b) The term Nominative does not appear to be a very appropriate 
one. It is retained because universally used. 

(c) All these properties, Person, Number, Gender, and Case, belong 
to both Nouns and Pronouns. 

(d) It will be observed that our nouns are not inflected for Person, 
which is shown by the noun's position in the sentence ; and not for Case, 
except to denote the possessive. They are inflected for Number and 
Gender. 

126. Nouns, then, have four properties : Person, Num- 
ber, Gender, Case. 

PERSON. 

127. Person is the property of the noun that indicates 
whether it represents the speaker, the person spoken to, or 
the object spoken of. Hence, there are three persons : the 
First, which denotes the speaker ; the Second, the person 
spoken to ; and the Third, the object spoken of. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 33 

Person in nouns is indicated by their use and not by 
a change in form. "I, Henry Anderson, am guilty." 
"Henry Anderson, you are a thief." "Henry Anderson 
stole the horse." 

(a) Most nouns are of the third person. 

(b) All predicate nouns are of the third person. 

(c) The first and second persons belong only to names of persons, or 
of other objects personified. 

(d) A noun of the first person is found in no other construction than 
that of apposition with a pronoun of the first person ; and in the nomina- 
tive absolute by subscription. 

(<?) A noun of the second person can have but two constructions: 
apposition with a pronoun of the second person, and nominative absolute 
by direct address. 

NUMBER. 

128. Number is that property used to shoiv whether the 
noun represents one object, or more than one. 

129. There are two numbers : the singular, denoting 
one, as box, child, star ; and the plural, denoting more than 
one, as boxes, children, stars. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

130. Nouns form their plurals by ordinary or terminal 
inflection or by a radical or root change. 

131. (1) By Terminal Inflection: — Most nouns form their 
plurals by suffixing s or es ; as, booh, books ; hat, hats; apple, 
apples; pin, pins ; floiver, floivers ; church, churches; bench, 
benches ; Jciss, kisses. 

Euphony determines whether s or es is to be suffixed. 
The following classes of nouns generally suffix es to the 
singular : — 

(a) Nouns ending in ch (soft), s, sh, x, or z, and some nouns in o, 
preceded by a consonant : trench, trenches ; miss, misses ; blush, blushes ; 
tax, taxes ; topaz, topazes; motto, mottoes. 

(&) Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, after changing y into 
i: glory, glories; story, stories; lady, ladies. 



34 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



In Old English we find such words written glorie, storie, ladie, with s 
suffixed for the plurals. Hence, when we say, "Change y into 1'e," we 
mean that ie has been changed into y. 

(c) A few nouns ending in / or fe, after / or fe has been changed 
intov: thief, thieves ; ivife, ivives ; life, lives; wolf wolves. 

(2) By Radical Change : — A few nouns form their plurals 
by radical change ; that is, by a modification of the vowel 
sound of the singular : man, men ; woman, women ; goose, 
tooth, teeth; mouse, mice ; louse, lice. 



PECULIARITIES OF NUMBER. 

(a) Singular and Plural the Same : — 
A few nouns have the same form for the plural as for 
the singular : sheep, deer, grouse, series, salmon, heathen. 

The number of such a noun must be determined from some other part 
of the sentence ; thus, "The sheep was in the garden." " The sheep were 
in the garden." " I bought one sheep." 1 '' "I bought five sheep.' 1 '' 

(5) Double Plurals : — 

(1) Some nouns have double plurals — one English and 
one foreign, or two English plurals with different significa- 
tions : — 

SECOND PLURAL. 

Brethren (community). 
Clothes (garments). 
Kine (a herd). 
Dice (for gaming). 
Fish (in aggregate). 
Fowl (the species). 
Genii (spirits). 
Indices (in algebra). 
Media (things). 
Memoranda (notes). 
Pease (in aggregate). 
Pence (by value). 
Shot (in aggregate). 
Staves (sticks). 



SINGULAR. 


FIRST PLURAL. 


Brother, 


Brothers (by birth), 


Cloth, 


Cloths (kinds of cloth), 


Cow, 


Cows (individuals), 


Die, 


Dies (for stamping), 


Fish, 


Fishes (individuals), 


Fowl, 


Fowls (individuals), 


Genius, 


Geniuses (men), 


Index, 


Indexes (of books), 


Medium, 


Mediums (persons), 


Memorandum, 


Memorandums (books) 


Pea, 


Peas (individuals), 


Penny, 


Pennies (by number), 


Shot, 


Shots (discharges), 


Staff, 


Staffs (military), 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 35 

(2) Another class of nouns from foreign languages has 
double plurals ivith the same meanings : — 



SINGULAR. 




PLURAL. 






English. 






Foreign. 


Bandit (Italian), 


Bandits, 






Banditti. 


Cherub (Hebrew), 


Cherubs, 






Cherubim. 


Dogma (Greek), 


Dogmas, 






Dogmata. 


Formula (Latin), 


Formulas, 






Formulae. 


Except in technical 


or scientific language 


the En; 


^lish plurals are gener- 


ally to be preferred. 











(c) Plurals only : — 

Some nouns are found only in the plural : — 

annals entrails scissors 

antipodes nuptials shears 

breeches pantaloons tongs 

drawers pincers victuals 

dregs scales vitals 

(d) Plurals as Singulars : — 

Another class of nouns has the plural form with the sin- 
gular signification ; as, means, molasses, news, odds, pains, 
riches, tidings, amends, gallows, thanks, etc. 

Also, politics, ethics, optics, mathematics, physics, and some others 
represent Greek plurals, but are regarded as singular. Thus, ' ' Mathe- 
matics is (not are) the science of quantity." "Ethics is (not are) the 
science of duty." 

(<?) Singulars only : — 

Many abstract nouns have no plurals ; as, decorum, 
harshness, meekness, prudence, tenacity, etc. 

(/) Plural of Proper Nouns : — 

Proper nouns generally form their plurals by adding s 
or es. But as to those ending in y, usage is unsettled ; 
some good writers acid s, others drop y and add ies; as, 
Mary, Marys, or Maries ; Story, Story s, or Stories ; Henry, 
Henrys, or Henries ; Tully, Tullys, or Tullies. 



36 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(</) The plurals of letters, marks, figures, and signs are 
formed by adding the apostrophe and % (\s) ; as, " You 
must dot your is and cross your £'«." "We prove addi- 
tion by casting out the .9*s." "At the bottom of the page 
were placed *'s, — \s, + 's, and D's." 

(7i) The plural of compound words 
is generally formed b}^ pluralizing the part of the word 
that is described by the rest ; as, mouse-traps, ox-carts, 
brothers-in-law, sisters-in-law, billet-doux, courts-martial, 
aids-de-camp, cupfuls, spoonfuls, coachfuls, wagon-loads, 
commanders-in-chief. 

A few compound words pluralize both parts : men-servants, women- 
servants, knights-templars (or knights-templar). 

PLURALS OF PROPER NAMES. 

132. Plural of proper names preceded by titles is formed 
by pluralizing either the name or the title, but never both. 



(1) If the title is dlrs., or is preceded by a numeral, the name is always 
pluralized; "The Mrs. Browns." "The two Mrs. Barlows." •• The two 
Miss Scotts had been gathering flowers." — Irving. 

(2) The title should always be pluralized when it is Mister, Miss, Doc- 
tor, Professor, etc., not preceded by a numeral: "The Messrs Johnson." 
"The Misses Dill. " " The Drs. Bank. ' ' 

(a) On this point usage is somewhat unsettled. In speaking of two or 
more single ladies of the same name many good writers pluralize the title, 
many the name, and some both the title and the name. Perhaps most 
grammarians prefer to pluralize the name, while in polite literature we 
most commonly find the title made plural. In this case, as in all others. 
usage, and not the grammarians, will prevail ; and finally, I believe, it 
will become the universal custom to pluralize only the titles of such terms. 

(6) Grammarians tell us that "the true law of the language requires 
that the s be affixed to the noun and not to the title ; " but the first and 
greatest of all demands upon language is that it express clearly the thought 
intended. Now if we say "I saw the Miss Banks," it cannot be deter- 
mined whether we mean one lady named k, Banks" or two named "Bank." 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 37 

"I called at the office of Dr. Motts," would probably imply one doctor 
named " Motts," but there are really two named " Mott." But if we say, 
" I saw the Misses Bank," and " called at the office of Drs. Mott," there 
is no possibility of ambiguity. Then the law next in importance, that of 
analogy, would require that Mister, Professor, and similar titles should be 
pluralized, and not the name. 

GENDER. 

133. As already pointed out, nouns may express the 
several relations their objects bear to sex. This property 
is Gender. 

134. Nouns may represent objects of the male sex. 
Such nouns are of the Masculine Gender. 

135. Nouns may represent objects of the female sex. 
They are of the Feminine Gender. 

136. Nouns may represent objects without sex. They 
are of the Neuter Gender. 

137. Nouns may represent objects with sex not definitely 
specified. They are of the Common Gender. 

138. Gender is the property of a noun or pronoun that 
expresses the relation of its object to sex. 

(a) Instead of noun and pronoun the word substantive will be used. 

139. A Substantive of the Masculine Gender represents a 
male object; as, boy, uncle, bachelor, Joseph. 

140. A Substantive of the Feminine Gender represents a 
female object ; as, girl, aunt, maid, Josephine. 

(«) When inanimate objects are personified — conceived as persons — 
they may be expressed by masculine and feminine nouns, as, "The sun 
dispenses his light ; " " The ship spread her sails." 

The moon looks down on old Cronest ; 

She mellows the shades on his shaggy breast. — Drake. 

(6) In the lowest degrees of personification, in which an object is con- 
ceived as manifesting only a minor characteristic of a person, its noun 
and pronoun remain neuter ; as, "The gentle brooklet hastens to its home 
in the sea." 



38 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



141. A Substantive of the Neuter Gender represents an 
object without sex; as, book, stump, table, snow. 

(a) In speaking of children and small animals the sex is often disre- 
garded. The nouns and pronouns representing such objects should then 
be called neuter ; as : — 

"A simple child that lightly draws its breath." — Wordsworth. 
"The robin is looking for its mate." 

142. A Substantive of the Common Gender represents an 
object with sex not definitely specified, as child, parent, 
persons, children. 

(«) A substantive is of the common gender when it represents either a 
single object of unspecified sex or a number of objects that may differ in 
sex. 

143. Nouns may distinguish the sex of their objects 
in three ways, or three kinds of Inflection : — 





(1) 


BY DIFFERENT WORDS. 




Mas. 


Fern. 




Mas. 


Fern. 


Boy, 


Girl. 




Lad, 


Lass. 


Brother, 


Sister. 




Man, 


Woman. 


Drake, 


Duck. 




Son, 


Daughter. 


Father, 


Mother. 




Uncle, 


Aunt. 


Gander, 


Goose. 










(2) BY 


DIFFERENT 


TERMINATIONS. 




Mas. 


Fern. 




Mas. 


Fern. 


Abbot, 


Abbess. 




Enchanter, 


Enchantn 


Actor, 


Actress. 




Lion, 


Lioness. 


Baron, 


Baroness. 




Prince, 


Princess. 



(«) Most words of this class are appellations of office, occupation, or 
rank, and the feminine generally ends in ess or trix. 

(&) There are not now so many feminines in ess as there were in 
earlier stages of our language. At present the best usage regards such 
terms as doctor, author, writer, engraver, as applicable both to men and to 
women. 

(3) BY PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

He-bear, She-bear. 

Man-servant, Maid-servant. 

( Miss Jones. 

( Mrs. Jones. 



Mr. Jones, 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 39 

144. Remarks on Gender. — (a) If the substantive itself does 
not show the relation of its object to sex, determine its gender if pos- 
sible from other words in the context. "The pupil likes the teacher." 
" You hurt me " (common gender). " 7, your uncle, will help you, Ber- 
nice " (7 is masculine; and you, feminine). "The child is sick" (com- 
mon). "The child broke her doll" (feminine). "The child lost his 
sled" (masculine). "The child sleeps in its cradle" (neuter). 

(5) The gender of a collective noun is neuter when it represents 
a collection of objects acting as one whole; as, " Congress enacted the 
following laws before it adjourned." " The mob, in its fury, burned the 
town." 

But, when it represents a collection of objects acting separately, its 
gender is determined by the sex of the objects represented ; as, " The fair 
sex, whose task is not to mingle in the labors of public life, have their own 
part assigned them to act." 

Here sex and the three pronouns representing it are feminine. But in 
"The jury do not agree in their opinions," jury and the pronoun their 
are masculine. 

When collective nouns are pluralized they usually become class nouns 
in the neuter gender ; as, "The herds when counted numbered fifty-four." 
" We saw five flocks." Here the individuals are lost sight of, and each 
collection becomes an individual object. But a collective noun may be 
used in the plural so as to refer to the individual object. Its gender then 
depends upon the sex of the individuals. " All the flocks and herds were 
quietly grazing upon the green pastures." The action spoken of was not 
performed by the groups acting as so many wholes, but by the individual 
objects. Herds and flocks are collective nouns in the plural number and 
common gender. 

(c) Bear well in mind the distinction between gender and sex. 
Sex belongs to objects, gender to nouns and pronouns. We never speak 
of a man of the masculine gender, nor of a noun of the male sex. 

(cZ) Some grammarians reject "common gender" as implying 
an absurdity, since there can be no such thing as an object of 
common sex. This, however, is but the common blunder which always 
follows an attempt to be hypercritical without understanding the subject 
discussed. The confusion arises from confounding "gender " and " sex." 
Sex is a characteristic belonging to some objects. Gender is a property 
belonging to all nouns. In one of our popular grammars may be found 
this expression : " Gender is sometimes ascribed to inanimate objects," 
and similar expressions may be found in many other grammars. This is 
a carelessness in expression which is confusing to the learner. There 
is no such thing as an object of the feminine gender, or a noun of the 



40 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

female sex. And although there may not be an object of common sex, we 
need not for that reason reject the term common gender. We should 
be compelled to reject the term man for the same reason. We say, 
"Man is mortal," and not even a grammarian wishes to criticise it, 
but who ever saw "man" ? We have a man, and the man, and 
this man, and that man, and thousands and millions of men, but we 
explore the universe for such a material object as man. I see no valid 
objection to the term common gender. 

(e) Neuter gender has been objected to on the same ground, that 
since the object represented has no sex, the noun therefore has no 
gender, but this is the same confounding of gender and sex. When a noun 
tells us anything, no matter what, concerning the relation of its object 
to sex, the property by which it does it, is gender. The nouns John and 
tree tell different things concerning sex ; but each tells something, 
and each therefore has gender. John tells us that its object is of the male 
sex, and tree tells us that its object is without sex. One noun is as much 
without gender as the other, because neither tells any more than the other 
concerning sex. It has been proposed to substitute the term no gender 
for neuter gender ; but, as may be seen from the above, such nouns do 
have gender, and we must therefore have a name for it. 1 do not contend 
for the terms neuter gender and common gender. Unfortunately for 
us they are not good terms, but they are the best ever suggested ; much 
better than undetermined gender and no gender. The gender of a 
noun is just as much determined when it indicates that the sex of the object 
is undetermined as when it indicates that the object is male or female. 
And a noun has gender just as much when it indicates that its object is 
without sex as when it specifies the sex that the object has. 

Neuter gender literally construed would mean neither gender, but it has 
never been so intended by grammarians. It is simply the best term we 
can get to apply to those nouns that represent objects of neither sex. It 
is certainly not true that such nouns have no gender ; but if it were, they 
would be in that respect like adverbs and interjections, and it would not 
be necessary to speak of gender at all. 

(/) We may miss most of our difficulties here by keeping in mind that 
we parse substantives, not objects. 

CASE. 

145. Nominative Case. — As may be seen from the follow- 
ing sentences, a substantive may stand in any one of several 
relations to the expression that governs it. Observe both 
the nouns and the pronouns. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 41 

(1) George came. /came. 

(2) It is George. It is I. 

(3) The boy, George, came. The boy, I, came. 

146. In (1) George and i~are each the subject of the finite 
verb, came. In (2) they are each the complement of the finite 
copula, is, In (3) each is in apposition with boy, which is 
the subject of a finite verb. 

147. These three relations are grouped together and 
called dependent nominative constructions. A substantive in 
a dependent nominative construction is in the Nominative 
Case. 

148. The Nominative Case is the case a substantive has 
when it is used in a dependent nominative construction. 

149. The Dependent Nominative Constructions are : — 

(1) Subject of a finite verb ; as : — 

Wilson is my lawyer. 
Henry wrote the letter. 
You have my consent. 
We shall wait for him. 

(2) Complement of a copulative verb whose subject is 
nominative ; as : — 

I am a student. 

Martha is a musician. 

They are detectives. 

She was not I. 

They were we. 

We shall be learners. 

The men have been good citizens. 

We were thought to be they. 

They were supposed to be we. 

(3) In apposition tvith a nominative substantive ; as : — 

Your brother, Paul, is here. 
He is your brother, Paul. 
I, your brother, plead with you. 
Your brother, 7, pleads with you. 



42 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

150. All verbs are finite verbs except Infinitives and Parti- 
ciples. The beginner may distinguish a finite verb by 
finding its present form and observing whether or not it 
changes as its subject is changed in person or number. 
For example, take the verb in the last two sentences. Its 
present form is plead when its subject is I, but it is pleads 
when its subject is changed to the third person noun, 
brother. It is therefore a finite verb. Also, is is the pres- 
ent form required when its subject is in the third person 
singular, but it changes to am when its subject is in the 
first person singular, and to are when its subject is in the 
second person singular or in the first, second, or third person 
plural. These, therefore, are finite verbs, while the corre- 

- sponcling infinitives, to plead and to be, and the correspond- 
ing participles, pleading and being, are infinite verbs. We 
shall learn later that the subject of an infinitive is com- 
monly in the objective case and the subject of a participle 
is commonly in the possessive case or nominative absolute. 

151. A noun used as the complement of a copulative verb 
is commonly called a Predicate Noun. This construction 
applies chiefly to the substantive completing a pure 
copula, that is, some finite form of the verb to be — am, is, 
be, are, was, were, been. The general rule is : A substan- 
tive completing a copulative verb is in the same case as its 
subject. We shall see later that it applies to the objective 
case and to the absolute as well as to the nominative. 

(a) An exception to the rule must be remembered : A substantive 
is in the nominative case when it is the complement of a copulative 
participle whose subject is possessive. 

152. A substantive is in apposition when, without a con- 
necting element, it modifies another in the same case and 
of the same signification. Observe that the appositive 
term is the one that explains the other. Apposition applies 
to all cases. Be careful to distinguish a substantive in 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 43 

apposition, as " Jones, the lawyer, came," from one used as 
the complement of a copulative verb, as " Jones is a 
laivyer." An appositive is in the same case as the sub- 
stantive it modifies, and it means the same. A substantive 
used as the complement of a copulative verb is in the same 
case as its subject and means the same. So far they 
resemble. This is their difference : A predicate noun has, 
and an appositive has not, a connecting element to join it to 
the substantive it explains. 

153. Nominative Absolute Case. — When a noun or pro- 
noun is used independently, when it is the subject or attribu- 
tive complement of a participle that is used independently, 
or when it is in apposition with another substantive so used, 
it is in the Nominative Absolute Case. 

154. The Nominative Absolute Constructions are : — 

(1) By direct address : — 

William, come here. 

(2) By exclamation : — 

Good old England ! 

(3) By pleonasm : — * 

Out fathers, where are they? 

(4) By inscription : — 

Dewey's Psychology. 

(5) Subject of an independent participle : — 

Wilson having overbid us, we failed to get the horse. * 

(6) Complement of an independent copulative parti- 

ciple : — 
Philip being our doctor, we were hopeful. 

(7) In apposition : — 

Wilson, the merchant, having overbid us, we failed to 
get the horse. 



44 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(a) A substantive used in any of these constructions is in the nomina- 
tive absolute case. 

(b) A substantive in any one of the first six constructions may have 
another in apposition with it. Illustrate. 

(c) Pleonasm is the independent use of a substantive before a sentence 
that makes a statement or asks a question about the object it expresses ; 

These problems, they are troublesome. 
The problems, how many can you solve ? 

Pleonasm is to be avoided except when we wish to express, along with the 
thought of an object, the emotion it produces. 

(d) There are several forms of inscription, such as superscriptions, 
subscriptions, and isolated names written on coins, signs, and monuments. 

155. Possessive Case. — When a noun or pronoun is used 
in a possessive construction it is in the Possessive Case. 

156. The Possessive Constructions are : — 

(1) Limiting a noun of different signification ; as, 

Mary's bonnet, TauVs pony, John's book, Brown's 
philosophy. 

(2) Limiting a noun of same signification = apposi- 

tion; as, 
Her Majesty, Queen Victoria's government. 

(3) Subject of a participle that has a dependent 

substantive use ; as, 

John's whispering to me annoyed her. 

Tour speaking good French secured your appointment. 

(a) The possessive may denote the owner of an object, as Brown's 
corn ; the author, as Hill's Rhetoric ; the kind, men's clothing ; the 
location, as Indiana's oil-fields ; the origin, as the sun's rays. 



TO FORM TIITC POSSi:SSTVF. 

157. Singular nouns and plurals not ending* in s form their 
p>ossessive by annexing the 's to the nominative; as, 

The child's book, The children's books, The men's hats. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 45 

158. Plurals ending" in 5 form their possessive by an- 
nexing only the apostrophe ; as, 

Boys'' sports, Birds' wings, Banks'' charters. 

\a) The 's is a contraction of the old English genitive ending es or is. 
" In widowes habite." " The Kingis crowne." — Chaucer. 

(&) For euphony the possessive sign is sometimes omitted from 

singular nouns that end with an s-sound ; as, " Xerxes' army," " Hoses' 
law," " Socrates' philosophy," " Demosthenes'' orations " ; but it is better 
in most cases to annex the s, also ; as " Dennis' [ s works." — Pope. "Louis's 
reign." — Macaulay. " Charles's affairs." — Prescott. The best usage 
sanctions the forms Mrs. Hemans's, Mr. Banks's, James's, ivitnesses's, 
etc. Without the s, there would be no distinction, in spoken language, 
between Mr. Bank's and Mr. Banks' ; Miss Bound's and Miss Bounds'. 
The s should always be used in spoken language and in prose unless it 
brings together too many hissing sounds, and then perhaps the possession 
may be much more elegantly expressed by using of before the objective ; 
as, "The army of Xerxes," "The law of Moses," "The philosophy of 
Socrates," "The orations of Demosthenes." As well-established excep- 
tions to the statement just made, however, we have, "Eor Jesus' sake," 
"Eor goodness' sake," " Eor conscience' sake." 

(c) The possessive, singular or plural, of such nouns as deer and sheep 
is formed by annexing 's to the nominative. If the noun's number needs 
to be shown, some other part of the sentence must do it. 

(d) "When a pair or series of nouns implying common possession are 
used, the possessive sign is annexed only to the one immediately preced- 
ing the name limited ; as, " Wade & Cash's furniture store," " Beed & Kel- 
logg' s Grammar is made by Clark & Maynard's Publishing House," " Lee 
& Shepherd' s shoe store," etc. 

(e) When a pair or series of nouns not implying common possession 
are used, the sign is annexed to each, and the name limited by the last 
possessive is understood before each of the others ; as, Day's and Fowler's 
Logic" (not Logics, unless each is the author of two or more works on 
that subject), " Swinton's and McGuffey's Readers " = Swinton's Readers 
and McGuffey's Readers. 

(/) In compound terms the possessive sign is annexed to the 
last; as, "The court-martial' s decisions," "The courts-martial' s deci- 
sions." (Better, " Decisions of the courts-martial.") 

(g) "When a noun in the possessive is limited by a noun in ap- 
position with it, by a descriptive phrase, or by a pronominal adjec- 
tive, the sign is annexed to the term immediately preceding the noun 
limited; as, "The emperor Napoleon's grave," "The secretary of the 



46 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

Navy's report," " What I do is no one else's business." When a proper 
noun is explained by a common noun in apposition with it. and when the 
limited noun is omitted, the possessive sign may be annexed to either the 
common or the proper noun, but never to both ; as, " We stopped at Ac- 
ton's, the jeweller," or, " We stopped at Acton, the jeweller's." 

(Ji) The subject of a participle having a dependent substantive use 
must be put in the possessive case. Otherwise the meaning of the sen- 
tence is changed. The writer's being a scholar is not doubted, and No 
one ever heard of that man's running for office, do not mean the same as, 
The writer being a scholar is not doubted, and, No one ever heard of that 
man running for office. 

(i) The possessive is the only case an English noun distinguishes 
by its form. 

159. Objective Case. ■ — A substantive having an objective 
construction is in the Objective Case. 

160. The Objective Constructions are, — 

(1) Object of a transitive verb ; as : — 

God made the world. God made ns. 

(2) Object of a preposition ; as : — 

She spoke to her sister. She spoke to me. 

(3) Subject of an infinitive ; as : — 

He wants his brother to come. He wants me to come. 

(4) Complement of an infinitive copula ivhose sub- 

ject is objective ; as : — 

He thought me to be your sister. He thought me to be 
her. 

(5) In apposition ; as : — 

I saw George, the hoy you spoke of. 
I saw George, him you spoke of. 

161. A substantive in any of the first four constructions 
may have another in apposition with it. Illustrate. Ap- 
position applies to all-Jthe cases. Illustrate. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 47 

162. Direct Object. — The object of an active transitive 
verb is called the direct object ; as, 

Henry buys cattle. 

The men will cut the grass. 

He likes you and me. 

The direct object corresponds closely but not completely 
with the Latin accusative. It is therefore sometimes called 
the accusative objective. 

163. The Object of an Intransitive Verb is sometimes men- 
tioned by nndiscriminating students as if there could be 
such a thing. But there cannot. A word cannot be the 
object of an intransitive verb. A verb that is often 
intransitive may be used so as to govern an object, but 
when so used it is transitive. 

The rainfalls on the just and the unjust. (Intransitive.) 
The woodman falls the trees. (Transitive.) 

164. A Cognate Objective or Accusative is a direct object 
similar in signification to the verb ; as : — 

He lived a noble life. 

Life is the direct object of lived. It is called a cognate 
objective. There are a few verbs, like live, that seldom 
take any but a cognate object. 

165. The Object of a Preposition is in the objective case. 
The student should read over carefully a list of preposi- 
tions and construct a sentence in which each governs a 
noun or pronoun. When there is doubt about the case of 
a noun following a preposition, put a pronoun in the 
noun's place and observe the form it takes. In " It is for 
George," we may easily see that G-eorge is objective, by 
noticing the substituted pronouns in, 

It is for me. It is for him. 

It is for us. It is for them. 



48 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

Also, if there is a question as to whether the case of 
George is determined by the preposition for or the verb is, 
it may be answered by omitting the preposition. Then we 
have " It is George" in which George is nominative, as 
may be shown by substituting pronouns as above : — 

It is I. It is he. 

It is we. It is they. 

166. The Indirect Object. — A transitive verb is often 
followed by two objectives of different significations, — 
a direct object, denoting that upon which the action of the 
verb directly terminates, and an indirect object, denoting 
a different thing that is also affected, but indirectly, by 
the same action ; as : — 

My teacher gave me a book. 

The act of giving terminated directly upon the book ; 
book is therefore the direct object. But the same act 
affected me also ; me is for this reason often spoken of 
as the indirect object. All these so-called indirect objects 
slwidd be parsed as the object of a preposition, usually to 
or for, always clearly implied and sometimes expressed. 
Thus : — 

Give him your pencil = Give your pencil to him. 

I sent my friend a present = I sent a present to my friend. 

She made the girl a dress = She made a dress for the girl. 

I asked the boy a question = I asked a question to the buy. 

The principal verbs that are followed by indirect objects 
are allow, ash, bring, buy, get, give, leave, lend, make, offer, 
pass, pay, present, promise, refuse, send, show, sing, teach, 
tell, throw, and write. 

The indirect objective corresponds closely to the Latin 
dative. 

167. When the verb teach, meaning either to give in- 
struction to or to give instruction in, is followed by two 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 49 

objectives, either may be parsed as the direct object, and 
the other as the object of a preposition to be supplied. 

Thus: — 

" He teaches me Algebra," 

may be equivalent to either, 

" He teaches Algebra to ine," or " He teaches me in Algebra." 

168. The Adverbial Objective or Objective without a Gov- 
erning Word. — Nouns used after intransitive verbs and 
adjectives, to denote time, distance, measure, value, and 
similar ideas, are often in the objective case without a 
governing word expressed ; as : — 

" Cowards die many times before their deaths." 

" Full fathom five thy father lies." 

We walked three miles. 

The river is a thousand yards wider. 

The cannons thundered all night. 

Such substantives are called adverbial objectives. They 
must be 'parsed as the objects of prepositions not expressed, 
for the verbs are intransitive, and adjectives have no 
governing power over the case of substantives. Some- 
times the preposition is clearly implied. In the last 
sentence it is during ; in the next to the last it is by ; in 
the first it may be on, at, or in. In such sentences as 
the second and third no preposition can be supplied that 
adequately expresses the relation. Our language does 
not yet have the proper preposition, and it may never 
have. But the mind thinks the relation, and precisely 
that kind of relation that is expressed only by a preposi- 
tion. Of course Abbott is right when he tells us that in 
early English no prepositions were inserted before such 
objectives. But the relation was always thought precisely 
as it is now ; and I should rather parse such words as the 
objects of prepositions we are very much in need of but 



50 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

do not yet have, than to say they are objective without 
governing words. This I must admit is rather a notable 
case of a thing exerting an influence centuries before it is 
born; but it is by no means an unnatural case, not even 
an unusual one. 

169. The Resultant or Factitive Object. — A transitive 
verb is often followed by two objectives of similar sig- 
nification. The one expressing the receiver of the verb's 
action is the direct object. The other expresses the result 
of the verb's action, and is therefore called a resultant 

object ; as : — 

Cigarettes have made hiin an idiot. 
We appointed her leader. 
Simon he surnamed Peter. 

Such words should be parsed as resultant appositives, — 
not objects of verbs but in apposition with the direct 
objects. A verb cannot govern two objects not joined by a 
connective. Since resultant objects always follow verbs 
signifying to make, they are sometimes called factitive 
objects. 

170. The Objective Subject of an Infinitive. — Just as a 
finite verb takes its subject in the nominative case, so 
an infinitive requires its subject to be in the objective case 
unless it is also the subject of a finite verb ; as : — 

"We want George to go." " We want him to go." 

"They think Iva to be mistaken." "They think her to be mistaken." 

Some erroneously suppose that such words are governed 
by the preceding transitive verbs and not by the follow- 
ing infinitives. The fallacy of such a position becomes 
apparent when we observe that the case changes to nomi- 
native when the infinitive is replaced by a finite verb, 
although the preceding transitive verb remain unchanged ; 
as : — 

"We think Iva is mistaken," or "We think she is mistaken." 



PROPERTIES OP NOUNS. 51 

The construction is common in the Latin and Greek 
languages, and is recognized by all English grammarians 
deserving the name. 

When the subject of an infinitive is also the subject of 
a finite verb, it is nominative ; as : — 

George wants to go. He wants to go. 

171. The Objective Complement of an Infinitive Copula whose 
Subject is Objective. — The rule, correctly stated, is, U A 
noun or pronoun used as the complement of a copulative verb 
is in the same case as its subject." To this rule there is the 
one exception, When the subject of a copulative participle 
is possessive, its complement is nominative ; as : — 

John's being a lawyer made his services valuable. 

The rule itself applies to 
The Nominative Case; as: — 

We thought George was Tom. 
We thought she was he. 

The Nominative Absolute Case; as: — 

George being a lawyer, we employed him. 
George being he, we employed him. 

The Objective Case; as: — 

We thought George to be Tom. 
We thought her to be him. 

This construction also is common in other languages, 
and not to be dispensed with in English. 

The complement of an infinitive copula is not always 

objective, but only when its subject is objective. Thus in 

Henry tries to be a teacher, 
You were thought to be he, 

the complements are nominative. 

172. Objective in Apposition. — Apposition is the use of a 

substantive, without a connective element, to modify another 



52 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

mi the same case and of the same signification* Apposition 
applies to 

The Nominative Case: — 

Peter, the doctor, came ; 
The Nominative Absolute Case: — 

Peter, the doctor, come here ; 
The Possessive Case: — 

Peter the doctor's horse is sick ; 

The Objective Case: — 

We sent for Peter, the doctor. 

Observe that the explanatory term is the one in appo- 
sition. 

173. The Object of a Passive Verb. — A verb in the passive 
voice cannot govern an object. Its subject represents the 
receiver of an action. 

When the verb in all such sentences as., 
"God called the firmament heaven," 

is changed to the passive voice, it becomes copulative, the 
direct object of the active becomes the subject of the 
passive, and the resultant object after the active becomes 
the attributive complement after the passive. Tims, in 
changing called to the passive voice, we have, "The firma- 
ment was called heaven" in which, of course, both nouns 
are in the nominative case. 

And when the verb in such sentences as, 
"He gave [to] me a dollar" 

is changed to the passive voice, the direct object in the 
active should become the subject in the passive, and the 
indirect object would then remain the object of its prepo- 
sition ; as : — 

"A dollar was given [to] me by him." 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 53 

This is easy, and it is the way all grammarians would 
have it. But, unfortunately for the grammarians, good 
speakers and writers often make the nominative form of 
the indirect object the subject of the passive verb ; as : — 
"I was given a dollar.'''' 

In such cases, the original direct object remains objec- 
tive after the passive verb, but our trouble begins when 
we attempt to parse it. It cannot be the object of the 
passive verb, and there is no appropriate preposition that 
can be supplied. In such cases, about all we can say is, 
that the noun is idiomatically objective, or objective without 
grammatical construction, or again, the object of a preposi- 
tion we do not yet have, but greatly need. Such a disposition 
is not entirely satisfactory. It does not bring perfect 
peace, but only such consolation as comes from the assur- 
ance that no one else is likely to do better. 

174. Objective by Enallage. — By a figure of speech called 
enallage the subject of a participle is sometimes given the 
objective form when it should have the possessive. This 
usage should not be encouraged, for it always gives the 
sentence a meaning different from the one intended. 
Thus : — 

" There is no harm in the man sitting on the counter," 

expresses an entirely different thought from 

" There is no harm in the man's sitting on the counter." 
What is the difference ? When should each be used ? 

175. Declension of Nouns. 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative. Boy. Boys. 

Possessive. Boy's. Boys'. 

Objective. Boy. Boys. 

(a) It will be observed that English nouns have but little variation in 
form to distinguish their cases. Only the possessive has a distinct form. 



54 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

PAESING OP NOUNS. 

176. To parse any word is to give, in order, its part of 
speech, its classes and sub-classes, its properties, its gov- 
ernment or construction, and the rule applying to its con- 
struction. Rules may commonly be referred to by number, 
but the teacher should often require them to be stated in 
full. Referring a construction to its appropriate rule ex- 
ercises the same mental process of generalization as citing 
the proposition that authorizes a certain step in a geomet- 
rical demonstration. 

177. Parsing affords a good opportunity to teach neat- 
ness, carefulness, and accuracy. Some of it may be oral, 
but most of it should be written in ink, with correct 
punctuation and capitals. 

178. A reasonable amount of parsing is excellent, but 
it can be easily overdone. It is not nearly so helpful as 
exercises in constructing original sentences to illustrate 
specified constructions. But parsing is easier, and should 
always come first. 

179. Model for Parsing Nouns. 

1. Species. 4. Person. 7. Case. 

2. Class. 5. Number. 8. Construction. 

3. Sub-class. 6. Gender. 9. Rule. 

(1) Wise men never waste time. 

Men, n., com., class, third, plu., mas., nom., subj. of 
waste, R. I. 

Time, n., com., class, third, sing., neut., obj., obj. of 
waste, R. IV. 

(a) See Rules on page 224. 

180. Parse the italicized nouns. 

(1) Tender men sometimes have strong wills. 

(2) The beauty of her disposition is its cheerfulness. 



PARSING OF NOUNS. 55 

(3) A bent twig makes a crooked tree. 

(4) Water seeks its level, and a loafer a companion. 

(5) Boys, set a high price on your leisure moments ; they are sands of 
precious #oZd 

(6) One day I ran a mile through the woods. 

(7) Give John your best ejTorte and his father will make your brother 
his so?z's assistant. 

(8) Smith was chosen secretary of the cZass. 

(9) The cZm& wants Charles to be its leader. 
(10) George wishes to be our leader. 

181. Review of Nouns. 

(1) Define a noun. (2) A substantive. (3) Name the classes of 
nouns. (4) Why do we have these classes ? (5) Define each. 
(6) Explain and illustrate when a proper noun becomes common, 
and when a common noun becomes proper. (7) Name the properties 
of nouns and define each. (8) Explain the two general methods 
of forming plurals. (9) Make a talk on the plurals of proper names 
preceded by titles. (10) What genders do nouns have ? (11) Dis- 
tinguish carefully gender and sex. (12) Explain in full the gender of 
collective nouns. (13) Name the classes of substantives. (14) Name 
and illustrate the dependent nominative constructions. (15) Name and 
illustrate the nominative absolute constructions. (16) Name and illus- 
trate the three possessive constructions. (17) Tell how the possessive 
is formed, singular and plural. (18) Name and illustrate each of the 
objective constructions. (19) Distinguish a noun in apposition from the 
complement of a copulative verb. (20) To what cases does apposition 
apply? (21) In what case is the complement of a copulative verb? 
(22) Explain in full and illustrate each of the following : (a) Direct ob- 
ject, (b) Object of an intransitive verb, (c) Cognate objective, (d) Ob- 
ject of a preposition, (e) Indirect object. (/) Verbs that govern two 
objects. (<7) Adverbial objective or objective without a governing word. 
(h) Resultant object, (i) Objective subject of an infinitive, (j) Objec- 
tive complement of an infinitive copula. (&) Objective in apposition. 
(I) Object of a passive verb, (m) Objective by enallage. (23) Show 
what is meant by the declension of nouns. (24) What use may be made 
of parsing ? 



56 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



THE PRONOUN. 

182. (1) The man told me that his wife left her pen in 
my book. 

(2) W7w took the money that you had ? 

183. We see that the italicized words in these sentences 
are used substantively without naming objects. Such 
words are Pronouns. 

184. A Pronoun is the part of speech that is used to desig- 
nate an object without naming it. Or, 

185. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

CLASSES OP PKONOOTS. 

186. Pronouns have three uses : — 

(1) To avoid the repetition of nouns ; as: — 

" Alexander told Elizabeth that she might write her name in her book 
with his pen"; instead of "Alexander told Elizabeth that Elizabeth 
might write Elizabeth's name in Elizabeth's book with Alexander's pen." 

These are Personal Pronouns. 

(2) To ask a question ; as : — 
Who came ? What can she do ? 

These are Interrogative Pronouns. 

(3) To join a modifying clause to an antecedent ; as : — 

The dog, which was a costly animal, caused his owner some anxiety. 
This is the dog that worried the cat. 

These are Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns. 

187. We have, therefore, three classes of pronouns. 

188. A Personal Pronoun is one whose form shoivs its per- 
son ; as : — 

/or we is always first person ; thou, you, or ye is always second person ; 
he, she, or it is always third person. 



CLASSES OF PEONOUNS. 57 

189. An Interrogative Pronoun is one used as the inter- 
rogative word in a question; as : — 

■ Who are you ? What are you ? 

190. A Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun is one that joins 
a clause to its antecedent ; as : — 

My horse, which was sick, travelled slowly. 

The horse that was sick died. 

The woman, who was impulsive, quickly resented the criticism. 

The woman that is impulsive needs time for regrets. 

{a) The term " conjunctive''' 1 is much the better one. Belative is not 
very significant ; it is retained only on aecount of its long standing in 
the grammars. 

191. The Antecedent of a pronoun is the substantive for 

which the 'pronoun is used. It is usually a noun, as, John 
lost his pencil ; but it may be a phrase, as, To pay the 
debt, which is the only honorable way out, will be difficult ; 
or a clause, as, That the clerk ivas dishonest, which was 
hard for us to believe, has been proved; lie has given up 
his course of study and now regrets it. 

(a) The antecedent of a relative is sometimes another pronoun ; as, 
Who that is strictly honest could make such a statement ? He that is 
dishonest suspects every one else. 

(b) Personal and relative pronouns follow their antecedents in sen- 
tences not inverted, but sometimes in poetry they come before their ante- 
cedents ; as : — 

" Can storied urn or animated bust 
Back to its mansion call the fleeting breath ? " 

(c) In thought, a pronoun represents its antecedent with all its 
modifiers; as, "I saw the most beautiful residence in the city, and saw 
it burn." But for convenience in parsing, only the noun may be named 
as the antecedent. 

(c?) The antecedent of an interrogative pronoun follows it, and is 
therefore called the subsequent. Here the pronoun and the subsequent 
are in different sentences ; as, Who wrote the Iliad ? Homer wrote the 
Iliad. 

(e) A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and 
gender. 



58 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 
THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

192. There are six personal pronouns : I for the fir at 
person; thou or you for the second ; and he, she, or it for 
the third. Each of these has its corresponding plural. 
Thus, we is the plural of I; ye of thou; you is either 
singular or plural ; and they is the plural of he, she, or it. 
Each has, also, different forms corresponding to the dif- 
ferent cases, as is shown by the declension, Article 198. 

(a) These pronouns are called personal because their form always 
shows their person; not because they always stand for persons, for they 
do not. It and they may stand for persons, for brute animals, or for 
inanimate objects. 

(6) You was originally only plural, and still requires a plural verb ; 
but it should now be regarded as singular or plural according as it 
represents one or more than one. 

(c) Thou is the original second person singular pronoun. Thou and 
its plural ye are still in common use among the Friends, or Quakers, in 
the Bible and other sacred writing, and in antiquated and poetic forms 
of expression ; but in all ordinary speech or writing, you is used in both 
the singular and the plural. Thy, and thine for the possessive, thee for 
the objective, and thyself for emphasizing either the nominative or the 
objective, are used like thou and ye. These pronouns seem also at some 
time to have acquired an insulting signification, still traceable in our 
literature. At Walter Raleigh's trial, Lord Coke, having failed with 
argument and evidence, insulted the defendant by thouing him thus, 
" All that Lord Cobham did, was at thy instigation, thou viper ; for I 
thou thee, thou traitor." 

(d) Mine, thine, yours, ours, theirs, hers are used instead of my, thy, 
your, our, their, her when the limited noun is omitted, but the parsing of 
one form does not differ from that of the other. They are all personal 
pronouns in the possessive case, not possessive pronouns. It is illogical 
to make a separate class for the so-called possessive pronouns, which are 
like all other personals except in case, unless we make a separate class 
also for the nominative, and one for the objective. If we make case a 
basis for classification of pronouns, we shall have just as good reason for 
classifying them according to person, number, and gender. We have no 
pronouns representing "both the possessor and the thing possessed." 

(e) /is the singular pronoun of the first person, and should always be 
used when the speaker refers to himself alone. Its possessive form is 
my or mine, and its objective form is me. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 59 

(/) We is the plural pronoun of the first person, and should be 
used, — (1) When the speaker or writer refers to himself as associated 
with some other person or persons ; (2) When the speaker or writer 
refers to himself as the representative of a class, school, doctrine, 
people, community, section, state, or nation. The latter is known as 
the editorial, or representative, toe, and it is an exhibition of bad taste 
and unpardonable ignorance to use it instead of I, when the speaker 
refers to himself only. The possessive form of we is our or ours, and 
its objective form is us. 

(g) They often refers to persons indefinitely; as, " They say." He 
and she are sometimes used in the same way. " He that wilfully injures 
another is a bad man. " " She that knows merely how to dress, dance, 
and flirt, will never make a good wife." 

(Ji) The English language has no personal pronoun of the third person, 
singular number, and common gender, and although we are very much in 
need of one, it is not probable that we shall ever have it. Some unsuc- 
cessful attempts have been made to adopt the word thon, from "that 
one,' 1 '' but usage sanctions the masculine forms, he, his, and him; as, 
" If any person wishes to contribute to this cause, let him drop his money 
into the hat when he hears his name called." 

(i) Peculiar Uses of It. — It is a personal pronoun of the third per- 
son, singular number, and neuter gender. It is used like other pronouns 
to represent a noun with which it agrees ; as, " He bought the book and 
gave it to me. ' ' But it has also peculiar uses : — 

(1) It is used for the names of infants ; as, "The child stood by its 
mother." 

(2) It is used as the subject of the verb to be, followed by a comple- 
ment in any person and number; as, " It is I" ; " It is you" ; " It is 
he " ; " It is we " ; " It is they " ; "Who is it ? " "What is it f " 

In such sentences the antecedent is not the predicate pronoun, but the 
name of the object not given, but definitely understood by the speaker ; as, 
" It (the thing that we see) is he." 

(3) It is used as the grammatical subject of certain verbs which are 
followed by their logical subjects ; as, " It is human to err" ; u It is evi- 
dent that he is mistaken " ; "I wish it to be understood that I did my best.-'' 

In such cases parse it as the subject of the verb, and the following 
phrase or clause, in apposition with it. 

(4) It is used to represent an antecedent not expressed but obviously 
understood ; as, " Princeton makes it (a mile) in 2.19f." 

(5) It is sometimes used to denote what the speaker cannot designate 
in any other way : the state or condition of things, or a point in time ; 
as, " It thunders" ; " It rains " ; " It is two o'clock." 



60 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(j) Our'n, your'n, his' a, h< ir'n, we uns, and you uns are barbarisms 
too gross to be mentioned. Any one that uses such expressions should 
not bother himself about grammar. 

(Jc) In using two or more pronouns of different persons, the third 

person should precede the first, and the second should precede the third ; 

as : — 

You, he, and I received the honors. 

But this is a matter of courtesy, not of grammar. The same rule of 
politeness would require the order of the pronouns to be reversed if we 
wished to speak in an uncomplimentary way; as, "I and you deserve 
the blame." Of course, one should never be impolite, neither should he 
use profane language ; but he may do either or both without violating 
any grammatical construction. 

SUB-CX ASSES OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

193. Personal pronouns have two sub-classes: Simple and 
Compound. 

194. The simple personals are /, thou, you, he, she, it, 
and their declined forms. 

195. The compound personals- are myself, thyself, yourself, 
himself, itself, herself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves. 

196. They have two principal uses : (1) a reflexive use in 
the objective case ; (2) an intensive use in the nominative 
or the objective case. This second use is merely for 
emphasis. 

The bear hung himself. The house was divided against itself. I, my- 
self saw him do it. You, yourself told me. 

(«) Sometimes in poetic or antique forms of expression the compound 
form stands alone in the nominative ; as, " Myself am hell." — Milton. 
" Giving out that himself was some great one." — Acts. But ordinarily 
it is nominative only when in apposition with another nominative, as, 
"She, herself, is coming" ; or is used as the complement of a copula, 
as, " She is not herself any more." 

(6) Sometimes the simple personal is used instead of the compound ; 
as, "Get thee (thyself) behind me." "Make thee (thyself) an ark of 
gopher wood." But in such expressions as, " Haste thee,' 1 ' 1 it is better 
to regard the objective thee as idiomatically used for the nominative thou. 

(c) Self is sometimes used substantively ; as, " He is a great lover of 
self." "My own self" etc. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 



61 



(d) It seems to have an adverbial construction in, "The self same 
place," which is equivalent to "The very same place." 

(e) Formerly hisself and tlieirself were in common use, but they are 
now obsolete. Ourself is peculiar to the regal style. 

197. Properties of Pronouns. — Pronouns, whether per- 
sonal, relative, or interrogative, have the same properties 
as nouns, — Person, Number, Gender, Case. They have also 
the same constructions as nouns. 

198. Declension of the Personal Pronouns. 



(1) First Person, 
singular. plural. 



(2) Second Person, 
singular. plural. 



Nominative. 


I. 


We. Thou, you. 


Ye, you. 


Possessive. 


My. 


Our. Thy, your. 


Your. 


Objective. 


Me. 


Us. Thee, you. 
Third Person. 


You. 






SINGULAR. 


PLURAL. 




Masculine. 


Feminine. Neuter. 


All genders. 


Nominative. 


He. 


She. It. 


They. 


Possessive. 


His. 


Her. Its. 


Their. 


Objective. 


Him. 


Her. It. 


Them. 



(«) The pupil should fix the declension firmly in mind, and should 
never lose sight of the fact that the object of declension is to shoiu the 
different forms corresponding to the different persons, numbers, genders, 
and cases. Knowing this, he may avoid all errors in the use of the 
pronouns by mastering a very few rules, — especially Rules I., II. , III., 
IV., Y., VI., VII., and XIV. There is no other way to learn to use the 
pronoun with any degree of assurance. It can never be done by imitation. 

(&) When a pupil declines a pronoun, he should be allowed to use each 
case form in a sentence, and to illustrate any nominative or objective 
construction the teacher thinks it advisable to call for. 



199. Model for Parsing Pronouns. 

1. Species. 2. Class. 3. Sub-class. 
4. Antecedent or Subsequent. 



62 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

5. Agreement in (a) Person, (6) Number, (<?) Gender. 

6. Case. 7. Construction. 8. Rule. 

The boy took your top and we took his. 
John has come and I like him. 

Your, pro., per., simp., antecedent, name of the person or 
persons spoken to, with which it agrees in second, 
singular or plural, com., R. XIV., poss., and 
limits top, R. VIII. 

We, pro., per., simp., ante., name of the persons represented 
by the speaker, with which it agrees in first, plu., 
com., R. XIV, nom., subj. of took, R. I. 

His, pro., per., simp., ante., name of the person spoken of, 
with which it agrees in third, sing., mas., R. XIV., 
poss., and limits top, R. VIII. 

Him, pro., per., simp., ante., John, with which it agrees in 

third, sing., mas., R. XIV., obj., obj. of like* R. IV. 

200. Write the parsing of italicized pronouns, observing 

punctuation, capitals, and spelling. Parse orally the italicized 

nouns. Read to the teacher and class, grammar authority 

on questionable constructions. 

(A) 1. We think. 2. She prattles. 3. Thou art 
adored. 4. I hope you will give me the book I lent you. 
5. Ours are as good as yours. 4. You must blame your- 
selves for your loss. 7. Behold the moon ; she cometh 
forth in her beauty. 8. He is taller than I. 9. Them 
that honor me, I will honor. 10. She herself is to blame. 
11. He thought I was she. 

(B) 1. It is too early for flowers. 2. She is very beautiful and she 
knows it. 3. He wanted them to elect me chairman. 4. He wanted 
to be & preacher, but he wanted me to be a tailor. 5. She desired him to 
go. 6. She compelled him to go. 7. And methought that the lighthouse 
looked lovely as Hope. 8. He is a good boy. 9. We believe him to be a 
good hoy. 10. He being a good boy, we do not fear him. 11. I thought 
he was you. 12. / thought him to be you. 13. He being you, I must try 
to like him. 14. 7 was supposed to be you. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 63 

201. Fill the blanks with he, she, him, her, I, or me, and 
give the number of the rule that governs your selection : 

1. John and may go. 2. May John and go ? 

3. Let John and go. 4. Let not boast that 

puts his armor on, but that takes it off. 5. He 

calls May and . 6. that cometh to me, I will in 

no wise cast out. 7. Who ate the oranges ? It was . 

8. If I were ■ I would resist. 9. Was it I saw ? 

No ; it was . 10. They came with Harry and . 

11. Harry and came with them. 12. She wants 

and to be good. 

13. O, no, my child, 'twas not in war, 

And that kills a single man his neighbors all abhor. 

14. Look at Lucy and ; we are running. 15. He 

thought to be . 16. that overcometh, will 

I make a pillar in the temple. 17. We thought him to 
be . 18. He was thought to be ■ . 

Fill blanks with we, us, they, and them, referring to rules : — 

1. That is good for Americans. 2. It is not 

but whom he seeks to please. 3. Did you say that 

or were chosen ? 4. She told Helen and 

boys to speak plainly. 5. Let who are pure throw 

the first stone. 6. Let none touch it but who are 

clean. 7. It was wdiom you saw. 8. Could it 

have been who did the mischief ? 9. Whom did he 

want ? girls. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

202. There are two interrogative pronouns, who and what. 

(a) Which is also commonly classed among the interrogative pronouns, 
but its use is different from that of who and what. Which refers to one 
of a number of persons or things. The particular noun referred to is 
always expressed or definitely understood; as, " Which book do you 
want?" "I want the large book." "-Which [hat] will you take?" 
" The cheapest [hat]." It will be observed also that the responsive word 



64 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

is not a noun, but an adjective. Which iu such sentences should be parsed 
as an interrogative adjective. 

203. Who and what are used less definitely than which. 

204. Who is used when it is supposed that the word 
answering to it will be the name of a person. 

205. What is used when it is supposed that the word 
answering to it will be the name of anything else. 

(a) What is an adjective when it immediately precedes a noun ; as, 
" What horse shall I ride ? " Who is never used adjectively. 

206. Declension of the Interrogative Fronouns. 

Nominative. Who. What. 

Possessive. Whose. Whats. 

Objective. Whom. What. 

207. The case and construction of an interrogative pronoun 
are always the same as that of its responsive word in the 
answer; as, "Who came?" "George came." "Who is it?" 
" It is George." " Whose book is it ? " " It is George's 
book." "Whom did he want?" "He wanted George." 

208. Every interrogative word has the same construction in 
the interrogative sentence as the responsive word has in the 
declarative sentence that answers the question. 

(a) This rule will be found very useful. Let the pupils illustrate it by 
applying it to every kind of word that can ask a question. 

(6) An interrogative pronoun is never found in the nominative absolute 
case, and is never in apposition. 

(c) An interrogative pronoun has no compound forms, but may be 
either direct or indirect. 

THE INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE. 

209. These same Avoids, who and what, are often used in 
substantive clauses, not to ask, but to imply, questions; 
as : — 

(1) I know who discovered America. 

(2) I know who took the teacher's pen. 

(3) He asked me what I wanted 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 65 

210. In all such sentences who and what are indirect 
interrogative pronouns. 

211. An Indirect Interrogative Pronoun is one used in a 
substantive clause to imply a question. 

212. Some have proposed to avoid this distinction by 
calling who and what relative pronouns in such sentences. 
But the slightest regard for the thought makes this dis- 
position impossible. A relative pronoun always joins an 
adjective clause to a substantive ; these pronouns have no 
connective force and are used in substantive clauses. We 
cannot say that the antecedent of who is understood, for 
(1) does not mean, " I know [the man] who discovered 
America." No one now living can truthfully make such a 
statement, unless he means that from history he has learned 
the character of Columbus. But certainly this thought is 
not expressed by, "I know who discovered America." 
Nor does (2) mean, " I know [the boy] who took the 
teacher's pen." This would give no information, for he 
is doubtless a fellow pupil, whom we all know. Or if it 
is insisted that " I know [the boy] who took the teacher's 
pen," expresses a possible thought, and it does, even a 
beginner will readily see that the thought is not the one 
expressed in "I know who took the teacher's pen." 

213. Nor can what in such sentences as (3) be called a 
relative pronoun. What is a double relative pronoun 
when it can be expanded into the thing that and preserve 
the meaning intended; but what in (3) cannot be so ex- 
panded. ~What in (3) and who in (1) and (2) are indirect 
interrogative pronouns. 

214. Here are the Tests. — Who or what as a direct inter- 
rogative pronoun asks a direct question and may be used in 
either a principal sentence or substantive clause. Who or 
what as an indirect interrogative pronoun never asks, but 
always implies, a question, and is always used in a substan- 



66 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

tive clause. Who as a relative pronoun is always used in an 
adjective clause, which it joins to its antecedent. What as a 
relative pronoun is alivays double, — is equivalent to both an 
antecedent part and a relative part, — and can be expanded 
into the thing that. 

(a) No interrogative word, direct or indirect, is ever a connective. 

No connective is needed for a substantive clause. 

(b) The declension of the indirect interrogative pronouns is the same 
as of the direct interrogatives. Illustrate, using each form in a sentence. 

(c) The substantive clause containing the indirect interrogative may 
he used in any one of the three nominative or five objective constructions. 
Illustrate. 

(d) The construction of the indirect interrogative pronoun is the same 
in the implied question as would be that of the direct interrogative if the 
question were asked. Illustrate. Either a direct or an indirect interroga- 
tive pronoun may be used in any of the nominative or objective construc- 
tions except apposition. Illustrate. 

215. Parsing of Interrogative Pronouns. 

(1) Who is he ? (2) What do you think she has ? 

(3) He asked who was behind the door. 

Who, pro., inter., direct, subsequent, the responsive word 
in the answer to the question, with which it agrees in 
per., num. and gen., R. XIV., nom., complement of is, 
R. VI. 

What, pro., inter., direct, subsequent, the responsive word 
in the answer to the question, with which it agrees in 
per., num. and gen,, R. XIV., obj., obj. of has, R. IV. 

Wlio, pro., inter., indirect, subsequent, the responsive word 
in the answer to the implied question, with which it 
agrees in per., num. and gen., R. XIV., nom., subj. of 
was, R. I. 

(a) When an interrogative pronoun is used as the subject of a verb it 
generally requires the verb to be of the third person, singular number, but 
for convenience the interrogative may always be parsed as agreeing with 
the responsive word. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 67 

216. Write the parsing of italicized ivords, and tell 
whether each interrogative is direct or indirect. 

(1) Who came with you ? 

(2) To whom did you speak ? 

(3) What is he ? A blacksmith. 

(4) Who is in the garden ? 

(5) Who is that ? 

(6) What is your opinion of good nature ? 

(7) Who are you, what have you, and what do you want done ? 

(8) Who was the first President ? Washington was the first Presi- 
dent. 

(9) Who was the founder of Rhode Island ? The founder of Rhode 
Island was Roger Williams. 

(10) Who is your guest ? 

(11) Who is it? 

(12) What would a man give for his soul ? 

(13) What would a man give his soul for ? 

(14) Can you guess who came ? 

(15) Ask her what she wants us to be. 

(16) Ask her whom she wants to see. 

217. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, giving the 
number of the rule each illustrates. 

(1) did he inquire for ? 

(2) do men say that I am ? 

(3) do you think me to be ? 

(4) do you think to be me ? 

(5) does she wish to be ? 

(6) The question, do you think me to be ? has been answered. 

(7) Do you know he thinks we are ? 

(8) Can you guess he thought it was ? 

(9) Could you imagine he thought you were ? 

(10) You will never know she guessed you to be. 

RELATIVE OK CONJUNCTIVE PRONOUNS. 

218. A Relative or Conjunctive Pronoun is one that joins 
to its antecedent a limiting clause ; as, " A man that is 
honest will be respected." "The buggy, which was in 
very bad condition, brought a good price." 



that went to town. etc. 



68 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

219. There are five relatives — who, which, that as, and 
what. They do not show their person and number by 
their form, as may be seen from the following : — 

I 

You 

He 

She 

They 

We 

220. The substantive limited by the relative clause, is 
called the antecedent. It is usually a noun or personal 
pronoun, but it may be a phrase or a clause ; as, " To stay 
away, which would be to acknowledge his inability to do 
the work, would keep him from being selected ; " " The 
hoy closed the door, which darkened the room; " or it may 
be an interrogative pronoun ; as " Who that has asked for 
bread has ever been refused ? " It is never another 
relative. 

221. The antecedent is commonly in the nominative case 
or the objective; but may sometimes be in the nominative 
absolute ; as : — 

"John, who had been promised the position, having declined it, they 
give it to me ; " 
or the possessive ; as : — 

"Be thou the first true merit to befriend ; 
His praise is lost, who waits till all commend." — Pope. 

"My doctrine is not mine, but his that sent me." — John vii. 10. 

CLASSES OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

222. There are three classes of relatives : Simple, Com- 
pound, and Double. 

223. (1) The simple relatives are who, which, that, and as. 

224. (2) The compound relatives are formed by annexing 
ever, or soever, to the simple relatives, ivho and which. 
That and as have no compound forms. The compound 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 69 

relatives are more comprehensive and less definite in their 
use than the simple relatives. 

225. (3) The double relative is what. It is called double, 
because it is equivalent to two parts, an antecedent part and 
a relative part. The antecedent of a simple or a com- 
pound relative is always expressed or understood in the 
principal sentence ; a double relative contains its own 
antecedent, and is always expanded into its two equivalent 
parts before it is parsed. It is better in most cases to ex- 
pand what into the thing that. What has also the compound 
forms, whatever and whatsoever, which are expanded into 
the thing whichever and the thing ivhichsoever. Thus, the 
sentences, " I took what he gave me," and " You shall 
have whatever you want," mean, " I took the thing that he 
gave me," and " You shall have any thing whichever you 
want." 

(a) Whoever and -whosoever have been erroneously treated as 
double relatives. They are compound, but not double. It is their peculiar 
characteristic to be used when their antecedents are understood ; but they 
do not, like what and whatever, contain their antecedents. 

(6) The objective form of the simple relative who is also sometimes 
used when its antecedent is not expressed ; as "WJiom the gods love die 
young. ' ' 

226. Personal and Relative Pronouns are alike in — 

(1) Both represent nouns. 

(2) Both have the properties and constructions of nouns. 

(3) Both agree with their antecedents in person, number, and gender. 

(4) Both have the sub-classes, simple and compound. 

(5) Both admit of Declension. 

227. Personal and Relative Pronouns are unlike in — 

(1) The relative has & connective use, and the personal has not. 

(2) The personal has a distinct form for each grammatical person, and 
the relative has not. 

(3) The personal may be used in either principal or subordinate sen- 
tences ; the relative, only in subordinate. 

(4) The relative may be double ; the personal cannot. 



70 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

228. Declension of the Relative Pronouns : — 

SIMPLE. DOUBLE. 

Nominative. Who, which, that. What. 

Possessive. Whose. 

Objective. Whom, which, that. What. 

COMPOUND. 

Nominative. Whoever, whosoever, whichever, whichso- 
ever. 
Possessive. Whosesoever. 
Objective. Whomsoever, whichever, whichsoever. 

(a) Whose is the possessive of who, ivhich, or that. 

(6) TJiat is usually said to be indeclinable, but it is as declinable as 
which. 

(c) What as the double relative, and the simple relative as, cannot be 
used in the possessive. 

229. Kinds of Objects Represented. — Who is used for per- 
sons or for other objects personified ; as, " The architect, 
who lives in the city, came to see us." " The goose, who 
thought the clog an intruder, thus in winged words ad- 
dressed him." 

(a) Who should never be used for brute animals, or for inanimate 
objects unless they are personified. 

230. Which may be used either for brute animals or for 
inanimate objects ; as, "His horse, ivhich was bought with 
his father's money, is all he has left." "The house, which 
is heavily mortgaged, is all they own." 

(a) Which, in earlier English, was used for persons. This use of which 
is very frequent in the Bible ; as, "Our Father, which art in heaven"; 
but it is not now good English. Also, it was formerly used substantively ; 
as, " In the ivhich.'''' 

231. That may be used for jwsons, brute animals, or in- 
animate objects; as, "The man that is sick wants food." 
"The cow that was sold yesterday died to-day." "The 
tree that fell stood near the corner of the house." 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 71 

232. Kinds of Relative Clauses. — Restrictive and Explan- 
atory. 

233. A Restrictive Clause is one that restricts or narrows 
the application of the antecedent; as, "Men that are honest 
are better than men that are dishonest." "Words that are 
names are nouns." "A boy that will lie is not to be 
trusted." " The Washington that emigrated to this country 
was the ancestor of the Washington that is called the father 
of his country." 

(a) A Restrictive Clause has the force of an adjective ; as, "honest 
men," "dishonest men," " name words," "lying boy," etc. 

234. An Explanatory Clause is one that explains the ante- 
cedent^ or expresses a thought as additional to the one con- 
tained in the principal sentence ; as, 

Men, who are rational animals, are better than brutes, 
which are irrational animals. 

Words, which are the signs of ideas, are divided into 
classes. 

Mr. Harris, who was there when it occurred, told me. 

Washington, who was the father of his country, was the 
spirit of the Revolution which gave birth to the American 
Republic. 

(a) An Explanatory Clause has the force of an appositive or of 
a coordinate sentence. Thus the first above might be written, — Men, 
rational animals, are better than brutes, irrational animals; and the 
third, — Mr. Harris told me, and he was there when it occurred. 

(&) This distinction between restrictive and explanatory clauses is 
very difficult and very important. The pupil should study these definitions 
and illustrative sentences till he has mastered it. He must be able to 
point out readily the relative clauses in his Reader, Arithmetic, History, 
Geography, and Physiology, and to tell whether each is restrictive or 
explanatory, and why. Also, he must become able to talk on any of the 
school subjects mentioned above, or any other, using either restrictive or 
explanatory clauses as the teacher may direct, and observing the direction 
given in article for the relative to be used. 

(c) An explanatory clause, but not a restrictive, is set off by commas. 



72 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

235. Relative to be Preferred in Each Kind of Clause. 

236. That is decidedly preferable to who or which in 
restrictive clauses. In modern English it is never used in 
explanatory clauses. 

237. Who or which must be used in every explanatory 
clause. 

(a) When a relative is needed immediately after a preposition it must 
be ivhom or which, for that cannot be so used. In this case we must either 
use the objective form of ivho or which, even in a restrictive clause, or 
close the sentence with a preposition. Either is allowable ; as, " He is the 
man that I came 10&A," or " He is the man with whom I came. 1 ' 

(6) Who may sometimes be used in a restrictive clause to avoid the 
repetition of that; as, "A woman that had a daughter who was very 
beautiful ; " or " A woman who had a daughter that was very beautiful." 

(c) Good writers often carelessly use who and which in restrictive 
clauses, but nothing is gained by it ; it is a violation of rule that should 
neither be encouraged by the grammarian nor imitated by the student of 
composition. 

238. As may be parsed as a relative after the adjectives 
such, many, and same. It is always used in restrictive 
clauses ; as, " Such a man as he is, let me try to be." "As 
many as joined the church, were baptized." "He has the 
same peculiarities as his father." 

239. What and whatever are sometimes used like which 
and whichever; as, " What consolation you get out of that 
speech you are welcome to." " Whatever money you have 
you may keep." Although these words immediately pre- 
cede nouns, they cannot be called adjectives, for the 
sentences are evidently complex, and must contain con- 
nectives. The sentences mean, "You are welcome to the 
consolation that you get out of that speech," and "You 
may keep the money whichever you have." They cannot 
be double relatives, for they do not contain their antecedents, 
— " consolation" and " money." What is therefore a simple 
relative, equivalent to which; and whatever is a compound 
relative, equivalent to whichever. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 73 

240. Connective Use of the Relative. — The relative is 
always found in a complex sentence, and always depends 
for its construction on some word in the subordinate sen- 
tence, which it joins to its antecedent in the principal. 
Thus, the sentence, " A boy that is studious will learn," is 
complex. " A boy will learn " is called the principal, 
and "that is studious" the subordinate sentence. The 
relative, that, joins the subordinate sentence to its antece- 
dent " boy" The relative pronoun therefore performs the 
office of a conjunction, on account of which it is sometimes 
called by its more appropriate name, conjunctive pronoun. 

241. Before jDarsing the relative, the pupil should always 
point out the principal sentence, naming its subject, predi- 
cate, and the antecedent of the relative ; then the subordi- 
nate sentence; then the relative, stating its construction in 
the subordinate sentence and also its connective use. 

242. Remember that the antecedent always comes in the 
principal sentence and depends for its construction on some 
word in the principal sentence; that the relative always 
comes in the subordinate sentence and depends for its con- 
struction on some word in the subordinate sentence. 

243. As is indeclinable; it may be singular or plural; 
masculine, feminine, or neuter ; nominative or objective. It 
is always a relative after the adjective same. 

244. Technical Notes that may be omitted. 

(a) As is chiefly used like than, in making comparisons ; but it may 
be seen that even after such or many it is used in two different senses : — 

(1) It may refer to an identical object previously mentioned. 

(2) It may refer to two different objects, or classes of objects, in such 
a manner as to suggest some similarity between them. 

It is the first of these uses, not the second, that entitles as to be called 
a relative pronoun. Let us try to see this distinction. In " She sang 
such songs as were called for," the meaning is that she sang, not similar, 
but the identical songs that were called for. "Such songs as" = "the 
songs that." (2) " As many as received him, to them gave he power " = 
"AH that received," etc. (3) "These are the same as you saw yester- 



74 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

day" =" These are the same that, 1 ' etc. In such sentences as the last 
three as should be parsed as a relative pronoun. But in such sen- 
tences as " I have often bought such bananas as you are selling, for five 
cents a dozen," the use of as is entirely different. 1 have bought, not 
the identical bananas that you are selling, but similar ones. The above 
sentence is evidently elliptical. In full it would read: ''I have often 
bought such bananas as [those bananas are that] you are selling, for 
five cents a dozen." As relates not to "bananas," but to "such." 
"Such" is an adjective; so is as. It is a predicate adjective used 
as the complement of [are], and modifies [bananas]. And in "Milton 
has fine descriptions of morning, but not so many as Shakespeare," as 
is evidently not a relative. The sentence expresses a comparison, the 
basis of which Js number. So . . . as are responsive adverbs. "So" 
introduces the comparison and limits many as a simple adverb of degree. 
As is a conjunctive adverb of degree ; it limits [many] and joins its 
subordinate sentence to so. The sentence that expresses in full the 
exact thought clearly implied in the above is, Milton has fine descriptions 
of morning, but not so many as [the descriptions are many that] 
Shakespeare [has]. 

It may be well in most cases to avoid difficult distinctions by calling 
as always a relative after the adjectives such, many, and same; but 
the teacher at least should know that the distinctions exist, and when 
his classes are prepared for them, they will afford the very best material 
for lessons in thought. 

(b) When the 'pronoun it is the subject of a sentence, it is often mod- 
ified by a relative clause that follows the predicate ; as : — 

(1) " It is the tree that frightens my horse." 

(2) " It is I that calls him." 

(3) " It is you that is to blame." 

It is very common for speakers, writers, and even grammarians to 
misconstrue such relative clauses. In most cases they belong to the 
subject it. It is the antecedent of the relative, and the verb in the sub- 
ordinate sentence should therefore be of the third person singular, 
instead of agreeing in person and number with the predicate noun or 
pronoun. It gives the sentence a very different meaning to construe the 
relative with the predicate. Thus the three sentences above are evi- 
dently intended to be the respective answers to the questions : — 

(1) " What is it that frightens your horse ? " 

(2) " Who is it that calls him ? " 

(3) " Who is it that is to blame ? " 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 75 

The first sentence could be the answer to the question, " What tree is 
it ? " Then tree would be. the antecedent of the relative that, and the 
verb frightens would remain unchanged And the third could be the 
answer to the question, " Who is to be censured ? " Then it would read, 
"It is you- that are to blame." In this case, the verb would determine 
the construction of the clause, or rather the construction of the clause 
would determine the form of the verb. Be very careful to determine 
ivhat is the use of the clause, and then construct your sentence, or parse it, 
accordingly. Even President Bascom in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric" 
says : " It is this unexpected union and quick recoil of ideas that please 
the mind." 

245. Constructions of Relative Pronouns. — A relative 
pronoun may have any of the nominative or objective 
constructions except apposition. It may also be posses- 
sive, limiting a substantive of different signification or 
used as the subject of a participle having a dependent sub- 
stantive use. 

246. Remember that no relative is ever in apposition or 
in any absolute construction. 

247. Parsing of Relative Pronouns. 

(1) A man that is careless with his business will 
lose it. 

That, pro., rel., simp., ante, man, with which it agrees in 
third, sing., mas., R. XIV., nom., subj. of is, R. I. 

(2) He will do such work as the man requires. 

As, pro., rel., simp., ante, ivork, with which it agrees in 
third, sing., nent., R. XIV., obj., obj. of requires, R. IV. 

(3) Whoever looks for perfection will be disap- 
pointed. 

Whoever, pro., rel., comp., ante, [he], with which it agrees 
in third, sing., mas., R. XIV., nom., subj. of looks, R. I. 

(4) I shall be satisfied with what I receive = 

I shall be satisfied with the thing that I receive. 



76 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

What, pro., rel., double, = the thing that. 

Thing, the antecedent part, n., com., third, sing., neut., 
obj. of with, R. V. 

That, pro., rel., simp., ante, thing, with which it agrees in 
third, sing, neut., R. XIV., obj., obj. of receive, R. IV. 

(5) Ask for whatever you want = 

Ask for the thing whichever you want. 

Whatever, pro., rel., comp., double, = the thing whichever. 
Thing, the ante, part, n., com., third, sing., neut., obj., obj. 
of for, R. V. 

Whichever, the rel. part, pro., rel., comp., ante, thing, with 
which it agrees in third, sing., neut., R. XIV., obj., 
obj. of tv ant, R. IV. 

(6) Whatever money was in the purse is mine = 
The money whichever was in the purse is mine. 

Whatever is equivalent to whichever, and is a pro., rel., 
comp. (but not double), ante, money, with which it 
agrees in third, sing., neut., R. XIV., nom., sub. of ivas, 
R. I. 

248. Designate each principal sentence, subordinate sen- 
tence, antecedent, and relative. Tell whether the clause is 
restrictive or explanatory, and why. Write in full the loos- 
ing of all italicized words, and give orally the case and 
construction of all other words designated by the teacher. 
Be careful to distinguish the double relative from the indirect 
interrogative. Read to the teacher and class grammar 
references on questionable construction. 

(A) 1. Death is the season that tries our affections. 
2. The eye, which sees all things, sees not itself. 3. He 
that gathereth in summer is a wise son. 4. The evil 
that men do lives after them. 5. Whoever said it must 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 77. 

have been misinformed. 6. He is a man in whom I have 
little confidence. 7. Where are the flowers that you 
promised to send me. 8. She is the lady that I spoke of. 

9. My brother, who lives in Kansas, came to see me. 

10. My brother that lives in Kansas came to see me. 

(B) 1. Who that has heard him once would ever hear him again ? 
2. This is the book that we are to study. 3. The fox, who saw the trap, 
said to his companion. 4. I believe in a religion whose origin is divine. 
5. I had a dream, which was not all a dream. 6. The place to which 
we came was an open field. 7. I am not the man that he thought me to 
be. 8. He is not the man that he was thought to be. 9. Whom the shoe 
fits, let him put it on. 10. He is the man whom we thought to be you. 

11. He is the man whom we thought you to be. 

12. " Who stops to plunder at this signal hour, 

The birds shall tear him, and the dogs devour." 

— Pope's Homer. 

13. Whoever comes shall be admitted. 14. Take whichever you like 
best. 15. Words, which are the signs of ideas, are divided into 
classes. 16. Words that are names are nouns. 17. Do you see ivhat 
I have ? 18. I do not care what she thinks. 19. Do you know what 
I have ? 20. He saw what I did. 21. He asked what I did. 22. 
Give me what you please. 23. For what have we endured all this ? 
24. I remember what was said. 25. Tops are more attentive to what is 
showy, than mindful of what is necessary. 26. Conscience wakes the 
bitter memory of what he was. 27. I heard what he wanted. 28. Wliom 
the gods love die young. 29. Whatever she touched turned to beauty. 
30. Whatever purifies the heart also fortifies it. 31. Wliatever he found, 
he took. 32. Whatever money I get, I spend. 33. Whatever he may do, 
I shall go. 34. Whoever studies will learn. 35. Whoever will, may 
come. 36. Whatsoever is more than these cometh of evil. 37. Whom 
the Lord loveth, He chasteneth. 38. Wlioso boasteth himself of a false 
gift, is like clouds and wind without rain. 

249. Fill each blank with who or whom, designating by 
number the rule illustrated. Tell whether each word sup- 
plied is a relative or interrogative. When possible, change 
the infinitive to a finite verb and the finite verb in the clause 
to an infinitive, noting carefully the case and construction of 
every substantive both before and after the change. 



78 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(1) He knew not they were. 

(2) He married a lady, they say is very wealthy. 

(3) She married a man, I know to be worthless. 

(4) do men say that I am ? 

(5) does he think me to be ? 

(6) does he think to be me ? 

(7) I saw a man, 1 think is to deliver the oration. 

(8) do you think that he is ? 

(9) do you think him to be ? 

(10) was he thought to be ? 

(11) do you wish to see ? 

(12) is it that you wish to see ? 

(13) He is a man, I thought you to be. 

(14) He is a man, I thought to be you. 

(15) He is a man, was thought to be you. 

(16) He is a man, you were thought to be. 

(17) did you inquire for ? 

(18) do you wish to see ? 

(19) She is not a lady, we supposed her to be. 

(20) She is not a lady, she was supposed to be. 

250. Outline of Substantives, Nouns, and Pronouns. 

la. Classes. 
16. Noun : A name ; as Mary, James, Washington, water, air, farmer, 
angel, world, mind, thought, love, brightness, Mary Jane 
Porter, 
lc. Proper : A name used to distinguish an object from others of the 

same class. 
2c. Common : One that names a class. 

Id. Collective: One that in the singular may name a group of objects. 
2d. Abstract : Name of an object regarded as an attribute of some 

other object. 
3d. Class : A common noun not included in any of the other classes. 
2b. Pronoun : A word used to represent a noun. 

lc. Personal : One that has distinct forms for different grammatical 
persons: I, thou, you, he she, it, and their declined forms. 
Id. Simple: (Without self or selves annexed.) 
2d. Compound: (A simple personal with self or selves annexed.) 
2c. Relative : One that may represent an antecedent of any gram- 
matical person, and join to it a limiting clause : who, which, 
that, as, and what. 
Id. Simple : ( Who, which, that, as.) 
2d. Compound: (Whoever, whichever. ) 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 79 

3d. Double: (What.) 
\d. Compound-double: (Whatever.) 
3c. Interrogative : Who and what when used in asking questions. 
2a. Properties. 
16. Person, 
lc. First. 
2c. Second. 
3c. Third. 
26. Number, 
lc. Singular. 
2c. Plural. 
36. Gender, 
lc. Masculine. 
2c. Feminine. 
3c. Neuter. 
4c. Common. 
46. Case : That property of a noun or pronoun that indicates or is 
indicated by its construction or use. 
lc. Nominative : 
Id. Dependent Constructions. (Construction in grammar always 
means use.) 
le. Subject of a finite verb : Sarah and I will go. 
2e. Complement of a copulative verb whose subject is nomina- 
tive. He is the thief. I thought you were he. He was 
thought to be the thief. You were thought to be he. 
Be. Complement of a copulative participle whose subject is pos- 
sessive : His being a capitalist should not excuse him. 
4e. In Apposition. 

If. With a word : Jones the banker died. 

2/. With a phrase : His objecting to my statement, a very rude 

act, caused my defeat. 
3/. With a sentence : He came to my aid just in time, a kind- 
ness for which I shall always be thankful. 
2d. Absolute Constructions. 

le. By direct address : George, bring me your book. 
2e. By exclamation : Mercy ! 

3e. By pleonasm (the use of a noun before a sentence in which 
something is said about its object) : The stars, they shall 
shine forever. 
4e. By inscription : Blair's Rhetoric. 
5e. With (subject of) a participle : Spring having come, we 

planted our flowers. (See Rule III.) 
6e. In apposition : Johnson, the preacher, having told us, we be- 
lieved it. 



80 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

2c. Possessive. 

Id. Limiting a noun of different signification : Brown's bank. My 

hat. 
2d. Limiting a noun of same signification = apposition: He read 

Nelson the senator's speech. (Better, He read Senator 

Nelson's speech.) 
3c. Objective. 

Id Object of a transitive verb : They saw James and me. 

2d. Object of a preposition : She went with him and hev fatlc r. 

3d. Subject of an infinitive : I believed the boy. to be a liar. We 

wanted him to leave us. 
4d. Complement of an infinitive copula whose subject is objective : 

We thought him to be a merchant. We thought him to be 

her. 
5d. In apposition : We saw Brown, the new minister. 

SYNTAX OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

251. Rule I. — A noun or pronoun used as the subject 
of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

Ccesar conquered Gaul. We sometimes find men that think they know 
all that is known. James and I left the slate where we thought it would 
be easily found. 

(a) To this rule there are no exceptions, and it is the only rule that 
is exclusively applicable to the nominative case. 

(b) There is no liability to error in the use of nouns according to this 
rule, since they do not have different forms for the nominative case and 
the objective. 

(c) In applying this rule to the pronoun, -we are liable to error : — 

(1) When a personal, relative, or interrogative pronoun is the subject 
of an objective clause; as, "He thought John and me were to blame." 
"He is a man whom you would not suppose would do such a thing." 
u Whom do you think is the best ? " 

In the first sentence 7 should be used instead of "me," because it 
stands as the subject of u were." In the second, the pronoun is the 
subject of " would do," and should be who instead of "whom" ; in the 
third, "whom" should be changed to who, because it is the subject of 
" is." 

(2) When the verb is not expressed. 

1. Is she as tall as me ? — Shakespeare. 

2. She suffers hourly more than me. — Swift. 

3. The nations not so blessed as thee. — Thomson. 

4. It is not for such as us to sit with the rulers of the land. — Scott. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 81 

5. She was neither better nor wiser than you or me. — Thackeray. 
Such expressions should be condemned as false syntax, regardless of 
their authors ; they must not be excused on the ground of enallage. 

(d) The subject of a finite verb is always a noun or some expression 
used as a noun. It may be : — 

(1) A noun ; as, " God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " She plays better than she thinks. " 

(3) An infinitive ; as, "To be contents his natural desire." 

(4) A participle ; as, " Thinking is harder than any other work." 

(5) A subordinate sentence ; as, " When he came is not known." 

(e) The pronoun it is often used as the grammatical subject of certain 
verbs that are followed by their logical subjects ; as, " It is pleasant to see 
the sun set ; " " It is possible that he is mistaken.''' 1 

It, in such cases, is sometimes called an expletive; but it should be 
parsed as the subject of the verb, because it is the word with which the 
verb agrees ; and the logical subject, generally an infinitive phrase or a 
subordinate proposition, should be parsed as an appositive explaining it. 

(/) The adverb there is often used to introduce a sentence in which 
the verb precedes its subject ; as, " There came to the town a very strange 
woman. 1 '' 

There in such cases should be parsed as an introductory expletive. ' 

252. Point out the subjects of the finite verbs in the 
following sentences, and tell whether each is a noun, pronoun, 
infinitive, participle, phrase, or clause : — 

(1) Remote from cities lived a swain. 

(2) For a man in health to be idle is disreputable. 

(3) It is sinful to neglect the development of our powers. 

(4) Bestowing a kindness is better than receiving one. 

(5) He that is slow to anger is better than the mighty. 

(6) Let him know that I have heard it. 

(7) That he grows weaker each day is discouraging. 

253. Fill the following blanks with suitable pronouns, and 
give reason for your selection: — 

(1) I saw the man they thought was dead. 

(2) They met a young man they agreed was nice looking. 

(3) He was dissatisfied with those circumstances had forbidden 

should ever be like himself. 

(4) do you think is in the room ? 

(5) It is not for such as to fill such a position. 

(6) is taller than , but am heavier than . 



82 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

254. Rule II. — The subject of an infinitive is in the 
objective case when it is not also the subject or complement 
of a finite verb. 

We believe them to be mistaken. 

She wants me to learn. 

He is the man, whom you thought to be me. 

Whom do you want to have your money ? 

(a) In the above sentences, the subjects of the infinitives being differ- 
ent from the subjects of the finite verbs, are put in the objective case ; but 
in each of the following sentences, the subject of the infinitive is also the 
subject or complement of the finite verb, and is therefore in the nomina- 
tive case. , . , 

We do not intend to be mistaken. 

She wants to learn. 

He is a man to be pitied. 

He is the man, vjho was thought to be I. 

Who wants to have your money ? 

(b) It may be well for the student to know that some of our very best 
grammarians reject the above rule altogether, and parse the objective sub- 
ject of the infinitive as the object of the preceding verb ; but their excel- 
lence and their eminence as grammarians come in spite of this blunder, 
not on account of it. 

To parse the words them, me, and whom, in the first four sentences 
above, as the objects of their preceding verbs, does not give the meanings 
intended. Indeed, it sometimes gives the sentence just the contrary 
meaning; as, "We wanted him to leave ;" "She believes me to be a 
liar." Me in the last sentence has the same relation to believes that /has 
in " She believes / am a liar." Now we can no more say that me is ob- 
jective because it follows the transitive verb believe in one sentence, than 
that / is nominative because it follows the transitive verb believe in the 
other. The two pronouns stand in precisely the same relation to the verb 
believe; then if / is nominative because it is the subject of am, me must 
be objective because it is the subject of to be. The subject of an infini- 
tive is objective, not because it follows a transitive verb or preposition, but 
because it is the subject of the infinitive, just as the subject of the finite 
verb is nominative because it is the subject of the finite verb. In other 
words, the language is so constructed. Neither is this objective subject a 
construction peculiar to the English ; it is just as common, and much more 
noticeable on account of their more extended inflection, in the Latin and 
the Greek ; and it is so understood and disposed of by the grammarians 
of those languages. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 83 

"The subject of the Infinitive Mood is in the accusative" (objective). 
— Allen & Greenough's Latin Grammar, § 240 (f). 

" The subject of the infinitive mood is put in the accusative." — An- 
drews & Stoddard's Latin Grammar, § 239. 

"The subject of the infinitive is in the accusative; as, Xeyovai tovs 
&p5pas airehdelv, they say that the men went away." — Goodwin's Greek 
Grammar. 

<■' The infinitive mood in a dependent clause has its subject in the accu- 
sative." — Bullion'' s Greek Grammar, Art. 729 ; and in Art. 730, he says, 
" When the subject of the infinitive is the same with the subject of the 
preceding verb, it is put in the same case." 

"The subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative." — Crosby's 
Greek Grammar. 

" When the infinitive has a subject of its own, it is in the accusative. 
When, however, the subject of the infinitive is not different from the 
principal subject of the sentence, it is not expressed." — Kuhner's Greek 
Grammar. 

(c) The subject of the infinitive may be — 

(1) A noun; as, " We want Paul to sing for us." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " We want him to sing for us." 

(3) A participle ; as, " He thinks cheating me to be beating me." 

(4) Another infinitive ; as, " He thinks to cheat to be to rob." 

(5) A clause ; as, " He thinks that I say nothing about it to be evidence 
that I know nothing." 

(d) This is one of the rules most frequently violated, and it should be 
thoroughly mastered by the pupil. 

(e) The infinitive may usually be known by the sign to before it, but 
the sign is generally omitted after the verbs bid, dare, feel, do, have, hear, 
let, make, need, see ; as, " Make him be still ; " " We heard him say it ; " 
"I saw him do it." 

(/) See syntax of Rule XVI. 

255. Exercises. — I. Fill the following blanks with suitable 
pronouns and give reasons for your selection : — 

(1) I wish to go. 

(2) They expected to be a teacher. 

(3) She wanted John and to go with her. 

(4) For to do his work well it is necessary for to stay away 

from . 

(5) We supposed to understand it. 

(0) He is the man we thought to be you. 

(7) do you expect to accept such an offer ? 



84 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

II. Write five sentences containing personal pronouns zised 
as the subjects of infinitives. Five containing relative pro- 
nouns, and five containing interrogative pronouns, direct and 
indirect. 

III. Write sentences in which a noun, a pronoun, a par- 
ticiple, an infinitive, and a clause, are each used as the sub- 
ject of an infinitive. 

256. Rule III. — When the subject of a participle does 
not depend upon any other word in the sentence, it is in the 
possessive case or nominative absolute : possessive when the 
participle is used as a noun in a dependent construction, and 
absolute when the participle with its subject is used inde- 
pendently. 

(a) This rule is not to be found in any other grammar, but the 
student will find it verified by all correct sentences in which are found 
subjects of participles. 

It must first be understood that, as the rule implies, the 
subject of a participle may depend upon some other word; 
when it does, it is always governed by the other ivord, not by 
the participle. Thus, the subject of a participle may be also — 

(1) The subject of a finite verb ; as, " Alice blushing answered yes." 

(2) The object of a transitive verb; as, "We saw John stealing 
peaches." 

(3) The complement of a copulative verb ; as, "He is a man admired 
by us all." 

(4) The object of a preposition; as, "Go to the woman standing in 
the door, and tell her to come in." 

(5) In apposition; as, "Showalter, the gentleman making you the 
offer, is a very successful business man." "He wrote to Jordan, the 
scientist having charge of the expedition." 

257. In the following sentences the subjects of the par- 
ticiples do not depend upon any other words. In the 
first three, the participles are used as nouns in dependent 
constructions, and their subjects are therefore put in the 
possessive case ; the subjects in the fourth and fifth are in 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 85 

the nominative absolute, because the participles together 
with their subjects are used independently. 

(1) Mary's leaving surprised everybody. 

(2) I understand your quibbling with him. 

(3) We were not surprised at his accepting your proposition. 

(4) Brovm coming in, we left the room. 

(5) Our leader having been disabled, our undertaking had to be 
abandoned. 

258. Objective by Enallage. — By a figure of speech 
called enallage, the subject of a participle is often put in 
the objective when it should be in the possessive ; but this 
construction should not be encouraged, since it is liable to 
make an ambiguous sentence. 

259. Point out the difference in meaning between the first 
four and the last four. 

(1) The writer being a scholar is not doubted. 

(2) There is no harm in ipomen studying politics. 

(3) No one ever heard of that man running for office. 

(4) Brown being a politician prevented his election. 

(1) The writer's being a scholar is not doubted. 

(2) There is no harm in womeii's studying politics. 

(3) No one ever heard of that mail's running for office. 

(4) Brown's being a politician prevented his election. 

260. The subject of a participle may be — 

(1) A noun; as, " The train having left us, we walked." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " He appearing so sincere, we all believed him.' 1 

(3) A participle ; as, " Speaking in public being much encouraged, we 
soon learned to speak with ease." 

(4) An infinitive; as, " To whisper having been forbidden, we had 
nothing left but to work." 

(5) A clause ; as, " That he could not have done it himself having been 
established, let us proceed to the next proposition." 

(a) There is but little liability to error in using either nouns or pro- 
nouns according to this Kule. 

261. Rule IV. — The object of an active transitive verb 
is in the objective case. 



86 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

God rules the world, which be created. 
He came to learn grammar. 
The limb struck George and me. 
Whom did he call ? 

Then there was a little girl peeling potatoes. 

(a) Not only finite verbs, but infinitives and participles as well, when 
transitive and active, govern objects. 

(6) No intransitive verb can have an object. 

(c) No verb in the passive voice can govern an object. 

(d) For the Indirect Object see Article 166 ; for the Resultant Object 
see Article 169 ; for Objective without a governing word see Article 108. 

(e) The object of a transitive verb may be — 

(1) A noun; as, "Mollie solved the problem. 11 

(2) A pronoun ; as, u They saw me " 

(3) An infinitive phrase ; as, " I like to play ; " " He wants to g<> to 
town with the children.' 11 

(4) A participle, or a participial phrase ; as, " He prohibited whisper- 
ing /" " They forbade our proceeding another step. 11 

(5) A sentence ; as, " We believe they are mistaken." 

(/) This rule is violated most frequently when the object of a transi- 
tive verb is a noun and a pronoun ; as, " He saw Edith and / ,• " " Mary 
called Henry and J." This is a very gross error, and the ability to avoid 
it altogether will more than compensate for the careful study it will re- 
quire. 

262. Point out and describe the objects in the following 
sentences : — 

(1) Anna plucked the prettiest flower. 

(2) We saw John driving the nail. 

(3) We went to see Mary Anderson. 

(4) My brother likes to study anything, but I like running and jump- 
ing better than studying anything. 

(5) He knows how to make mountains out of mole hills. 

(6) He ordered the horse to be saddled. 

(7) Let me give you my pencil. 

(8) Jacob said, I will serve thee seven years for Rachel. 

(9) I was offered a lucrative position. 

(10) I was promised a car. 

(11) Do not let an imperfect understanding satisfy you, but make 
yourself master of all the details. 

(12) We called them heroes. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 87 

263. Fill the folloioing blanks with suitable pronouns, 
giving reasons for your selections : — 

(1) I found assisting . 

(2) Success in that battle made a soldier. 

(3) I shall ask the question when I see . 

(4) They will not hurt Frank and . 

(5) They invited my brother and . 

(6) he had most injured he had the greatest reason to love. 

(7) prejudice has biased, you can never convince. 

(8) did you elect ? 

(9) We heard you nominated. 

(10) We both wanted the position, but he does not want either John 
or . 

(11) that honor I will honor. 

264. Write sentences illustrating the direct object, or the 
accusative objective; the indirect object, or the dative objec- 
tive; the resultant, or factitive objective; and the objective 
without a governing word. 

265. Rule V. — A noun or pronoun used as the object 
of a preposition is in the objective case. 

The ruins of the Parthenon stand upon the Acropolis, in the city of 
Athens. The temple of fame stands upon the grave; the fire that burns 
there is kindled from the ashes of great men. 

266. The object of a preposition may be — 

(1) A noun ; as, " He came from the field." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " Speak to me." 

(3) A participle ; as, " Oblige me by reading this letter." 

(4) An infinitive; as, "She did nothing but cry." "I am about to 
lear<\" 

(5) An adjective ; as, " On high. " 

(6) An adverb ; as, " From here to there is ten feet." 

(7) A prepositional phrase; as, "From over the sea." 

(8) A subordinate sentence ; as, " He hath given assurance unto man 
in that he hath raised him from the dead." 

(a) This rule is never violated in the use of a noun, but it requires 
great care to use our pronouns according to it. 



©8 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(6) Nouns of time, distance, measure, etc., are said to be in the 
objective case without a governing word ; as, " The lake is a mile wide ; " 
"The rule is a foot long ; " " The child is ten years old ; " but it is bet- 
ter to regard such nouns as governed by prepositions unexpressed. The 
sentences mean : "The lake is wide to the extent of a mile ; " "The rule is 
long to the length of afoot ; " " The child is old to the extent often years." 

These prepositions are omitted for two reasons : because they make 
awkward expressions if expressed ; and because the relation is clear with- 
out them. The noun, to be in the objective case, must be governed by 
some word. 

(c) The object of a preposition follows it when the sentence is not 
inverted. It frequently precedes the preposition in poetry; as, "From 
peak to peak, the rattling crags among ;" and in prose when we wish to 
call particular attention to the object ; as, " His conduct we did not 
approve of." 

The relative that precedes the preposition that governs it ; as, " He is 
the man that I came with." 

267. Name the objects of the prepositions in the following 

sentences : — 

(1) To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. 

(2) The eulogium pronounced on the character of the State of South 
Carolina, by the honorable gentleman, for her revolutionary and other 
merits, meets my hearty concurrence. — Daniel Webster. 

(3) Into the jaws of Death, into the mouth of Hell, 
Rode the Six Hundred. — Tennyson. 

(4) At midnight in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. — Halleek. 

(5) But now no sound of laughter was heard among the foes, 
A wild and wrathful clamor from all the vanguard rose. 

(6) Run to your houses, fall upon your knees, 
Pray to the gods to intermit the plague 

That needs must light on this ingratitude. — Shakespeare. 

(7) The trees are now in their fullest foliage and brightest verdure ; 
the woods are gay with the clustered flowers of the laurel ; the air is per- 
fumed by the sweetbriar and wild rose ; the meadows are enamelled with 
clover blossoms ; while the young apple, the peach, and the plum begin to 
swell, and the cherry to glow among the green leaves. — Irving. 



CLASSES OF PKONOUNS. 89 

268. Fill the following blanks with suitable pronouns, giv- 
ing reasons for your selections: — 

(1) He sat by and . 

(2) did you give it to ? 

(3) Mary caine with and . 

(4) He spoke to Susan and . 

(5) did you complain to ? 

(6) was it from ? 

(7) Between you and , I do not care what he says. 

(8) There are still a few, who like and , drink nothing but 

water. 

(9) He sat between and . 

(10) She looks neither like her other brother, nor . 

(11) He is the man I told you about. 

(12) This life has joys for you and . 

(13) All are gone but and . 

(14) He bought it for Kate and . 

(15) They sat just behind and . 

269. Rule VI. — A noun or pronoun used as the com- 
plement of a copulative verb is in the same case as its 
subject. 

Exception. — When the subject of a copulative participle is possessive, 
the complement is nominative. 

(a) This rule is usually stated incorrectly, so as to be applicable only 
to the nominative case; but it applies to the objective case when the 
copula is an infinitive with its subject different from that of the finite 
verb ; and it applies to the nominative absolute case when the copula is a 
participle having its subject in the nominative absolute. 

(1) In the Nominative : — 

That man is a soldier-. 

If I were you I would try to be a musician. 

Who is he ? 

He is not the man that you thought he was. 

(2) In the Objective : — 

He thought me to be her. 

We want the boy to become a preacher. 

We expect them to be our companions. 

H I were you I would get him to be a musician. 



90 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

In applying this rule to the objective case we must determine the case 
of the subject of the infinitive by Rule II. Thus, in " I want him to be 
a scholar," scholar is objective because him, the subject of the infinitive, 
being different from the subject of the finite verb, is objective ; but in " I 
want to be a scholar,' 1 '' scholar is in the nominative case, to agree with the 
subject of to be, which is I, the subject of the finite verb. 

(3) In the Nominative Absolute Case : — 

In the sentence, " I believe him because he is a scholar,' 1 '' scholar is in 
the nominative case to agree with he, the subject of is. In the sentence 
meaning the same thing, " He being a scholar, I believe him," the 
copulative verb is has been changed to the participle being ; and although 
he has not changed its form, it has become nominative absolute in case, 
because it is the subject of the participle. Scholar, the complement of 
being, must be either in the nominative, or nominative absolute ; and 
since there is no reason for supposing this an exception to the rule, it 
should be parsed in the nominative absolute case. 

270. Explanation of Exception. — " That he is a scholar has never 
been questioned." In this, the subject of the subordinate clause is he, and 
the complement is scholar, both in the nominative case. But the clause 
is abridged by dropping that, changing the finite verb is to the participle 
being, changing the nominative he to the possessive his, and leaving 
scholar unchanged. Then we have, " His being a scholar has never 
been questioned." His, the subject of being, is evidently possessive, but 
■why is scholar, the complement, nominative ? 

(1) Scholar was nominative before the clause was abridged. 

(2) No change has taken place in the process of abridgment to cause 
any change in its case, unless it should follow the general rule and be- 
come possessive when the subject becomes possessive. 

(3) It is not possessive, for it does not have the possessive sign, neither 
does it denote possession. 

(4) Therefore " scholar,' " or the complement in all such cases, is 
nominative. 

(a) The complement of the copulative verb is always a noun, or an 
adjective, or some expression so used, and is called the attributive comple- 
ment. The pupil should be careful to distinguish between the attributive 
complement and the objective complement. The attributive complement 
refers to the same person or thing as the subject ; as, " He is a soldier ; " 
"The man is a mason;'''' "He expects me to become a musician;" 
hut the objective complement refers to a different person or thing; as, 



CLASSES OF PKONOUNS. 91 

"John killed a snake;" "She bought a house;' 1 '' "Jones sold his 
farm." 

(b) Be careful to distinguish intransitive verbs that are used as im- 
pure copulas followed by attributive complements, from transitive verbs 
followed by objective complements. 

(c) The passive voice is often followed by attributive complements ; 
as, "He was appointed judge. " 

271. Point out the complements in the following sentences, 
and tell the cases of those that are nouns and pronouns : — 

(1) The world is but a stage, all the men and women merely players. 

(2) My friend was appointed chairman. 

(3) She walks a queen. 

(4) He is a farmer. 

(5) He will become a better man. 

(6) To study correctly is to learn. 

(7) The general opinion is that Mrs. Clearwater planned the murder. 

(8) Now I am myself again. 

(9) Cheating is stealing. 

(10) He appears to be a Canadian. 

272. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, giving reasons 
for your selections : — 

(1) It was not ; it was either or . 

(2) Was it you meant ? 

(3) Was it or that you called ? 

(4) If I were , I would send for the doctor. 

(5) If it were , I would act differently. 

(6) It was I sought. 

(7) I knew it was , but she thought it to be . 

(8) do you think me to be ? 

(9) do men say that I am ? 

(10) It was you said it was. 

(11) do you take us to be ? 

(12) He is the man I thought you to be. 

(13) He is the man I thought to be you. 

(14) No matter the vanquished be. 

(15) It was not that came for us. 

(16) I know you to be . 

(17) Its being should make no difference. 

(18) There is no doubt of its being . 



02 GRAMMAH OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

273. Rule VII. A noun or pronoun in apposition is in 
the same case as the noun or pronoun it explains. 

274. Apposition is the use of a substantive without a con- 
necting element, to limit another in the same case and of the 
same meaning ; as, •' Brown, the banker;" "It is pleasant 
to see the stars;" "It is evident that she is insane;" "In 
her brother Absalom s house." 

(a) A predicate noun, although meaning the same as the subject, is not 
in apposition. The copulative verb is the connecting element ; as, " Harry 
is a farmery 

(7>) The appositive term is the one that explains the other. 

(c) The appositive noun usually follows the one explained, but may 
come before it ; as, -'Child of the sun, refulgent summer comes." — Thomson. 

(d) A noun in any case may have a noun in apposition With it. 

(1) In the nominative ; as, •■ Hope, the halm of life, soothes us under 
misfortune ; " " The mountain, Vesuvius, poured forth a torrent of lava." 

(2) In the nominative absolute ; as, " Brown, the minister, hav- 
ing told us, we believed it ; " " John, you little rascal, what did you do 
it for?" 

(b) In the objective; as, "We saw Forrest, the great tragedian, in 
Hamlet ; " "I sat by Jones, the harness-maker. " 

(4) In the possessive ; as, " William the Conqueror" 1 s victory at the 
battle of Hastings decided the fate of England." 

(e) Apposition, or identification in language, is much more compre- 
hensive than is usually supposed. It belongs, not to substantives alone, 
but also to verhs, adjectives, adverbs, phrases, and clauses. "Come here 
where we are. 11 Where ve are is identical with here. "Let us start 
now, while it is cool." While it is cool is in apposition with now. 
" There where the accident occurred.'''' Where the accident occurred is in 
apposition with there. " He has sunk to the lowest depths of disgrace, to 
the convict's cell." To the Convict's Cell is in apposition with to the 
lowest depths of disgrace. "Let him who is perfect, who has no faults, 
throw the first stone." Who has no faults is in apposition with who is 
perfect, etc. 

(/) The word as frequently introduces an explanatory term; as, 
"Electricity, as a motive force, promises great results ; " " Shakespeare, 
as a dramatic artist, has no equal;" etc. In such cases, some regard 
as as merely an expletive, and parse the following term in apposition with 
the preceding ; but it seems preferable to consider as in such cases as a 
preposition governing the noun that follows. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 93 

(g) The word and is frequently used without conjunctive force when 
it precedes an explanatory term; as, "We believe in Christ and him 
crucified." In such cases consider and merely as an expletive, and the 
term following it in apposition with the one preceding. 

(h) The appositive term must always agree in case with the one that 
it explains, but it need not agree with it in any other property, as may be 
seen from the following examples: "The Kenite tribe, the descendants 
of Hobab." — Milman's History of the Jews. "But how can you, a soul, 
still hunger and thirst ? " " Who seized the wife to me, his host, and fled." 

(z) The word of is frequently followed by a term meaning the same as 
the preceding ; as, "The month of December ;" "The city of Boston;' 1 ' 1 
meaning, "The month, December ;" "The city, Boston;' 1 '' but in such 
cases the term following of must be parsed as its object. 

(j) A pronoun of the first or second person is often followed by the 
appositive ; as, " I, John ; " "But what is that to you, receivers f " 

(k) When a noun in the possessive case is limited by another noun in 
apposition with it, the possessive sign is put to the noun immediately 
preceding the name of the object possessed; as, "Bring me John the 
Baptist's head." 

(I) A noun may be in apposition with a sentence or phrase; as, " He 
promised me the use of his library, a kindness for which I am very thank- 
ful." " To leave so abruptly, an act which we could not explain, would 
certainly arouse suspicion." 

(iii) A distributive term in the singular is frequently used to explain, 
in some way, a comprehensive plural ; as, " Go ye, every man, unto his 
city;" "They love one another." Such sentences as the last are not 
easily disposed of. One and another, or the nouns they limit, are some- 
times parsed as in apposition with they. But this cannot be ; for, evi- 
dently, the noun that is limited by one is in the nominative case, but the 
noun that is limited by another is in the objective case, the meaning of 
the sentence being " Each one person loves the other person.'''' There is 
a case of apposition here, but it is one sentence in apposition with 
another sentence. The sentence, " They love," is explained by the sen- 
tence, " Each one person loves the other person." 

(n) In cases of enumeration, or specification, parts are often put in i 
apposition with the whole; as, " The whole army fled, some one way, 
some another." 

(o) A proper noun frequently either explains, or is explained by, a 
common noun; as, "The poet, Hilton," or "Milton, the poet;" "The 
fiery mountain, Vesuvius," or "Vesuvius, the mountain of fire." 

(p) The resultant or factitive objective is in apposition with the direct 
object ; as, " Make me a child again, just for to-night ; " " We appointed 
Harrison chairman." 



94 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

275. Point out the appositives in the folloiving sentences: — 

(1) Hope, the star of life, never sets. 

(2) Delightful task, to rear the tender thought. 

(3) He rescued the child from the burning building, an act of heroism 
that deserves recognition. 

(4) There stood an unsold captive in the mart, 
A gray-haired and majestic old man. 

(5) This is my answer : not that I love Caesar less, but that I love 
Rome more. 

(6) It is he, my old friend and benefactor. 

(7) A doubt that any one should challenge his right had never crossed 
his mind. 

(8) I count this thing to be grandly true, 
That a noble deed is a step toward God. 

(9) True wit is like a precious stone, 

Dug from the Indian mine, 
Which boasts two various powers in one, 
To cut as well as shine. — Swift. 

(10) Caledonia ; stern and wild ; 
Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 
Land of brown heath and shaggy wood ; 
Land of the mountain and the flood ; 
Land of my sires ! What mortal hand 
Can e'er untie the filial band 
That knits me to thy rugged strand ! — W. Scott. 

276. Justify or condemn the following sentences, giving 
reasons : — 

(1) We will make a covenant, thee and me. 

(2) The word came not to Esau, the hunter, him that stayed at home ; 
but to Jacob, the plain man, he that dwells in tents. 

(3) Power is given to the man of God, he that is led by the spirit of 
God. 

(4) He deems God to be the creditor, he to whom the debt should be 
paid. 

(5) Christ and him crucified is the alpha and omega. 

(6) We believe in Christ, he who is the head of the church. 

(7) Our Shepherd, Him who is styled King of Saints, will surely come. 

277. Rule VIIT. — A noun or pronoun limiting another 
noun signifying a different thing is in the possessive case. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 95 

278. Express the relation of possession in the most 
appropriate manner. Use either the possessive sign or a 
phrase introduced by of, according to euphony and the 
best usage. 

279. Reivrite the following, making any change you think 



(1) His misfortunes awaken nobodys pity, though no ones ability ever 
went further for others good. 

(2) A mothers tenderness and a fathers care are natures gifts for mans 
advantages. 

(3) Five year's interest remained unpaid. 

(4) Six month's wages will then be due. 

(5) I admire Moses's law as much as Socrates's philosophy. 

(6) Marcy's letter, the Secretary of War, is a masterly reply. 

(7) John's brother's wife's sister married a burglar. 

(8) It is not your business or any body else's. 

(9) The wife of the captain of the Alabama died this morning. 

(10) Reed & Kellogg's Grammar. Reed's & Kellogg's Grammar. 
Reed & Kellogg's Grammars. Reed's & Kellogg's Grammars. (Give 
meanings.) 

(11) Brown, Smith and Jones's wife are always seen together. 

280. Rule IX. — A noun or pronoun used independently 
is in the nominative absolute case. 

(a) This rule covers Exclamation, Address, Pleonasm, and Inscrip- 
tion. 

(&) The subject of a participle is also in the nominative absolute case, 
but it is explained under Rule III. 

(c ) For lists of all nominative absolute constructions, see Article 154. 

(cZ) Exclamation, Address, and Pleonasm are all indicative of strong 
emotion, but they should be sparingly employed, as excessive use of them 
weakens the style of composition. 

(e) This rule applies to pronouns, but rarely ; as, " Miserable they /" 
— Thomson. " O ! Rare we /" — Cowper. 

(/) All names inscribed on coins, monuments, or signs ; all titles of 
books ; all headings, superscriptions, and subscriptions, are in the nomi- 
native absolute case by inscription. 

(gr) When the name of a person addressed is put after the sentence, 
as, "I appeal to you, Mr. Chairman," we cannot tell whether to parse it 
as absolute by address, or in apposition with the preceding pronoun. In 
a declinable language, such a noun as the one above would as likely be 



96 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

in the accusative (objective), in apposition with the preceding pronoun, 
as in the vocative (nominative absolute). 

(h) Pleonasm is used when some object is of more importance to our 
thought or feeling than what we wish to say about it; as, "The boyt 
Oh, where was he ? " 

(i) The infinitive may be used by pleonasm ; as, "2b be, or not to be, 
that's the question." 

(j) In parsing nouns and pronouns under the rule the pupil should be 
required to state their constructions definitely, whether they are used by 
exclamation, address, pleonasm, or inscription. 

281. State definitely the case and construction of every 
noun and pronoun in the following selections : — 

(1) He that hath, to him shall be given. 

(2) He that is holy, let him be holy still. 

(3) The North and the South, thou hast created them. 

(4) I should not like to see her limping back, poor beast. 

(5) Oh ! deep enchanted prelude of repose, 

The Eden of bliss, the twilight of our woes. — Campbell. 
(G) That very law that moulds the tear 

And bids it trickle from its source, 
That law preserves the earth a sphere, 

And guides the planets in their course. — Rogers. 
(7) To be resigned when ills betide, 
Patient when favors are denied, 

And pleased with favors given ; 
Dear Chloe, this is wisdom's part, 
This is that incense of the heart, 

Whose fragrance smells to heaven. — Dr. Cotton. 

282. Rule XIV. — A pronoun agrees ivith its antecedent 
in person, number, and gender. 

(a) It will require the utmost diligence on the part of the pupil to 
use his pronouns according to this rule, but this he must do, if he expects 
to speak what will be listened to, or write what will be read. 

Cool is thy brow, my son, and I am chill 

As to my bosom I have tried to press thee. — Willis. 

Woodman, spare that tree, 

Touch not a single bough ; 
In youth it sheltered me, 

And ril protect it now. 



CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 97 

'Twas my forefather's hand 

That placed it near his cot ; 
Then, woodman, let it stand; 

Thy axe shall harm it not. — Morris. 

283. In apptlying this rule, remember ; — 

(«) Two or more singular antecedents connected by or, or ?ior, must 
be represented by a singular pronoun ; as " When he shoots a partridge, 
a woodcock, or a pheasant, he gives it away." 

(&) When a pronoun cannot fully represent its antecedent in gen- 
der, the masculine pronoun is to be preferred ; as, " No boy or girl could 
do his work better." 

(c) The pronoun it is often preferable to represent the name of a 
young child or of an animal whose sex is not definitely distinguished ; 
as, " The child sat by its mother ; " "The nightingale sings most sweetly 
when it sings in the night." 

(d ) Masculine or feminine pronouns represent the names of inanimate 
objects personified. 

To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. 

(e) A collective noun conveying the idea of unity must be represented 
by a pronoun in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender ; 
as, " The mob swept everything in its way." A collective noun convey- 
ing the idea of plurality must be represented by a plural pronoun, whose 
gender is determined by the sex of the objects denoted. 

A collective noun conveys the idea of unity when it refers to the 
objects as forming one ivhole; and it conveys the idea of plurality when 
it refers to the individuals of the group. 

284. Fill the blanks with suitable pronouns, giving 
reasons : — 

(1) Many a man looks back on the days of youth with melan- 
choly regret. 

(2) The orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ears of 

hearers. 

(3) If we deprive an animal of instinct, will be unable to take 

care of . 

(4) If any member of the congregation wishes to connect with 

this church, will please come forward while the brethren sing. 

(5) I like the molasses, for tasted as good as honey. 



98 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(6) The earth is my mother, and I will recline upon bosom. 

(7) To persecute a truly religious denomination, will only make 

flourish better. 

(8) The government will have cause to change orders. 

(9) The cabinet seemed to be divided in sentiments. 

(10) The cabinet was distinguished for wise measures. 

(11) Egypt was glad when they took their departure, for was 

afraid of them. 

(12) Every herb, every flower, and every animal shows the wisdom of 
Him who made . 

(13) Every governor and magistrate does as thinks best. 

(14) If any boy or girl be absent, will have to go to the foot of 

the class. 

(15) No man or woman is able to get rid of vices without a 

struggle. 

(16) Poverty and wealth have each own temptations. 

285. Review of Pronouns. 

(1) Name the three uses of the pronoun and the three corresponding 
classes. (2) Define and illustrate each. (3) What is the antecedent of 
a pronoun ? (4) What may the antecedent be ? (5) Name and illus- 
trate the sub-classes of personal pronouns. (6) What is the use of 
declensions ? (7) Give several principles commonly violated in the use 
of pronouns. (8) What is a direct interrogative pronoun ? (9) An 
indirect interrogative pronoun ? (10) Illustrate. (11) In what kind of 
a sentence may each be found? (12) Define a conjunctive or relative 
pronoun. (13) Illustrate. (14) How does a relative differ from an 
indirect interrogative ? (15) Name and illustrate the sub-classes of rela- 
tive pronouns. (16) In what are personals and relatives alike ? (17) In 
what are they different. (18) For what kind of objects may each of 
the relatives, who, which, and that, be used ? (19) Name, define, and 
illustrate two kinds of relative clauses. (20) What relative is required 
in each? (21) Explain the connecting use of a relative pronoun. 
(22) Name three nominative constructions and five objective construc- 
tions, illustrating each with (a) Personal pronoun of the third person, 
singular number, feminine gender, (b) Personal pronoun of the first 
person, plural number, common gender, (c) Direct interrogative pro- 
noun who. (d) Direct interrogative pronoun what, (e) Indirect inter- 
rogative pronoun who. (/) Indirect interrogative pronoun what. 
(g) Relative pronoun that in a restrictive clause, (h) Relative pronoun 
vjho in explanatory clause, (i) Relative pronoun which in explanatory 
clause. 



CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 99 



THE ADJECTIVE. 

286. We have already found that some objects differ so 
much that it is necessary to put them in different classes 
and to give them different names ; as, man, rose, tree. We 
may now observe also that objects belonging to the same 
class have different qualities or attributes, which it is often 
necessary for us to name ; and also that many times we 
wish to point out or refer to an object, without either nam- 
ing its qualities or applying a proper name to it. Hence 
arises another part of speech, called the Adjective, by which 
we may refer to an object or name its qualities. 

287. An Adjective is a ivord used to limit a noun or pro- 
noun so as to point out or refer to an object, or to name one 
of its qualities; as, "this book," "four boys," "an apple," 
"large book," "lazy boy," " sweet apples." 

CLASSES OP ADJECTIVES. 

288. Since adjectives limit substantives in two ways, as 
illustrated above, there arise two general classes of adjec- 
tives : — 

289. A Descriptive Adjective is one that limits a substan- 
tive so as to denote a quality of an object ; as, " icy moun- 
tains," "heavy hearts," "laughing eyes," "strong arms." 

290. A Definitive Adjective is one that limits a substantive 
so as merely to point out or refer to an object ivithout denot- 
ing quality ; as, "eox," "woman," "fifty guns," "those 
geese." 

SUB-CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

291. Descriptive or qualifying adjectives have the three 
sub-classes : — 

ILoFC. 



100 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

292. (1) Common, any ordinary quality word not de- 
rived from a proper name; as, '■'good fruit," "sweet 
oranges," "cold water," "honorable men,"' "amiable dis- 
position," "virtuous women." 

293. (2) Proper, one derived from a proper name ; as, 
"Arabian Nights," M Grecian armies," " Turkish des- 
potism." 

294. (3) Participial, one derived from a verb; as, "throb- 
bing hearts," "amusing stories," "twinkling stars," "conse- 
crated spots," "defended rights," "deadened sensibility." 

295. Definitive or merely limiting adjectives have the 
three sub-classes : — 

296. (1) Articles, A or An and The. 

(a) The is called the definite article, and A or An the 
indefinite article. 

(b) A is used before consonants, and An before vowels ; 
as, "a man," "a cow," "an ape," "an ox." 

297. (2) Pronominals, those that may be used substan- 
tively ; as, "Some were invited; others were not ; but all 
were welcome." 

(a) It is better in most cases to supply the limited noun in parsing. 

(b) The following and some others are usually called pronominal 
adjectives: This, that, these, those; each, every, either, neither; much, 
little; some, all, such, own, any, none, one, both, other, another; certain, 
divers, else ; former, latter, first, hist. 

(c) Pronominals are divided into four classes : — 

(1) Demonstratives ; as, this, that, these, those. 

(2) Distributives ; as, each, every, either, neither. 

(3) Indefinites; as, all, any, some, few. 

(4) Interrogative ; as, which, what. 

298. (3) Numerals, those that suggest number. 

(a) Definite; as, four, six, forty ; fourth, sixth, fortieth ; fourfold, 
sixfold, forty fold. 

(b) Indefinite ; as, several, few, many. 

(c) The definite numerals are further divided into: — 

(1) Ordinals, those denoting orders in a series ; as, second, tenth. 



REMARKS OK DEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 101 

(2) Cardinals, those that state merely the number of objects ; as, 
two, ten. 

(3) Multiplicatives, those that tell how many fold ; as, twofold, 
tenfold. 

KEMAEKS ON DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

299, I. ARTICLES. 

(a) Articles are sometimes classed as a separate part of speech, but 
they differ so little from definitive adjectives that they should be parsed 
as such. 

(b) TJie limits either singular or plural nouns ; A or An, except in a 
few cases, limits only singular nouns. 

(c) The noun is used without an article when we wish to refer to a 
whole class; as, "Man is mortal. 1 ' The indefinite article is used when 
we wish to refer indefinitely to any one of a class ; as, "A man is not so 
strong as an ox." And the definite article is used when we speak defi- 
nitely of a part of a class, one or more than one ; as, " The child broke the 
dishes. ' ' 

300. II. PRONOMINALS. 

(1) DEMONSTRATIVES. 

(a) This points out an object that is near in time or place, or nearer 
than some other object referred to ; as, " This book ; " "This pen (in my 
hand is better than that (on the table before me) ; " " This age (Shake- 
speare's) was better than that (Homer's)." 

(b) TJiat points out an object distant in time or place, or not so near 
as another object referred to and pointed out by this. In many languages 
all the adjectives are inflected to agree with their nouns in person, num- 
ber, gender, and case ; but this and that are the only English adjectives 
that are inflected, and these only to denote number. These and those are 
respectively the plurals of this and that. 

(c) TJiese should be used to point out more than one object when this 
would be used if there were but one ; those should be used to point out 
more than one object when that would be used if there were but one. Let 
the pupil thoroughly understand the use of these and those so that he may 
never misuse them. 

(d) Former and latter are used to denote respectively the first and 
second of two objects previously mentioned. 

(e) Both refers to two objects, either collectively, as, "Both boys can 
lift the log," or individually, as, " Both boys came." 



102 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(/) Same denotes the identical object ; as, " He is the same man." 
(g) Yon or yonder may denote any distant object that is in view ; as, 
" Yon house," " Yonder mountain." 

(3) DISTRIBUTIVES. 

(a) Each in connection with other applies to one and also to the other 
of two objects ; as, "Each helped the other." Each without the word 
other is individually applicable to more than two ; as, " Each soldier stn.nl 
boldly for the right." 

(b) Every denotes all of a class taken individually ; as, •• Every man 
believed her." 

(c) Either is applicable to one or the other of two ; as, " Either book 
will satisfy me." 

(d) Neither means not either ; as, " The man and his wife rose, but 
neither spoke." 

(3) INDEFINITES. 

(a) All includes the whole class, and may denote that the objects are 
to be taken either collectively or individually ; as, " All the men (working 
together) can lift the log;" " All men are mortal," that is, individually 
they must die. 

(&) Any is applicable to one or more of a class, or to a portion of a 
quantity; as, "i«!/maiiormen," "Any coffee." 

(c) Another or other means not the same as this or not the same as 
these; as, "Another man," " Oikrraen." 

(d) Certain denotes one or some of a class; as, "A certain woman," 
" Certain women." 

(e) Divers means different, various, or numerous ; as, " Divers colors," 
" Divers kinds," " Divers places." 

(/) Enough denotes a sufficiency; as, "Enough men," "Enough 

bread." 

(g) Few denotes a small number ; as, " Few were chosen." 

(h) Little denotes a small portion; as, "A little sleep," "Little 

money," " Little sense." 

(i) Many denotes a large number; as, " Many crimes." 

(J) Much denotes large in quantity ; as, " Much improvement." 

(k) No means not any, either of number or quantity ; as, " No man." 

" No silver." 

(I) None means not one or not any. When one of a number is referred 

to, it is better to say no one ; when more than one, or a part of a quantity, 

use none; as, " None (of men) are here, or no one is here," " None (of 

bread) is left." 






REMARKS ON DEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 103 

(m) One is generally used in connection with another; as, "They 
help one another.' 1 '' It is difficult to parse such a sentence as it stands. 
The meaning is, " Every one person helps another person." 

(n) Own is used to express possession more emphatically ; as, "My 
own land." 

(o) Several denotes any small number more than two ; as, " Several 
times." 

(p) Some denotes number or quantity indefinitely ; as, " Some books," 
" Some wheat." 

(q) Sundry means various ; as, " At sundry times." 

301. III. NUMERALS. 

(«) A cardinal adjective answers the question, How many ? as, one, 
two, three, four, etc. 

(6) An ordinal adjective answers the question, Which one in the series? 
and may usually be known by its form ; as, fiist, second, third, fourth, 
etc. But an adjective is ordinal, regardless of its form, whenever it marks 
the position of an object in a series; as, "Read page ten,' 1 '' or "Read 
the tenth page." 

(c) See the indefinite numerals, several, few, and many, under the 
indefinite pronominals, where they are commonly classed. 

302. Classes of Adjectives with Reference to the Manner 
of Modification. 

303. The classification of adjectives into descriptive and 
definitive is based upon the adjective itself, — the idea it 
expresses. The same adjective does not belong to both 
classes. Thns, strong is a descriptive, and yonder, a defini- 
tive, adjective. 

304. But according to another classification, on the basis 
of the manner of modification, the same adjective may belong 
to any one of three classes. 

305. It may modify a substantive directly. It is then 
called a direct adjective. It may complete a copulative 
verb and at the same time modify its subject. It is then 
a predicate adjective. It may modify the direct object in 
such a way as to express a quality that is the result of the 
verb's action. Then it is a resultant adjective. 



104 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

306. A Direct Adjective u one that modifies a substantive 
directly ; as, " A beautiful child," " A strong arm."* 

(a) A noun in any construction may be modified by a direct adjective. 

307. A Predicate Adjective is one that completes the predi- 
cate and modifies the subject ; as, "The child is beautiful" 
"His arm is strong." 

(a) Bear in mind that a predicate adjective always modifies the sub- 
ject and completes a predicate. In " He is a strong man," we may say 
strong is an adjective in the predicate, but it is not a predicate adjective. 

308. A Resultant Adjective is one that modifies the direct 
object in such a manner as to express a result of the verb's 
action; as, "Fresh air made the child beautiful" "Exer- 
cise made the man's arm strong." 

(a) Resultant are often called factitive adjectives. 
(6) Since only an active verb can take a direct object, passive verbs 
are never followed by resultant adjectives. 

(c) Since a resultant adjective modifies a noun with reference to a verb, 
it is sometimes called an adverbial adjective. 

(d) When a verb followed by a resultant adjective is changed to the 
passive voice, the resultant adjective becomes a predicate adjective ; as, 
" He painted the ceiling blue,' 1 ' 1 " The ceiling was painted blue.'' 1 

309. Use each of the following adjectives: old, cold, long, 
infirm, reckless, rich, rare, right, strong, might//, faithless, 
innocent, beautiful, famous, furious, frantic, wild, worth//, 
wise, mindful, mad, mighty, sick, well, angry, weak, strong, 
acceptable, agreeable, patient, intelligent, intelligible : — 

(1) As direct, (2) As Predicate, (3) As Resultant. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

310. Most qualities of objects exist in different degrees. 
Some men are wise; others, wiser ; and still others, wisest. 
Some landscapes are beautiful; others, more beautiful; 
others, most beautiful. This difference in the degree of 



REMARKS ON DEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 105 

quality is expressed by a variation in the form of the 
adjective, called comparison. 

311. Comparison is a variation in the form of the adjective 
to excess different degrees of quality ; as, long, longer, long- 
est; good, better, best; profitable, more profitable, most 
profitable. 

DEGREES OF COMPARISON. 

312. There are three degrees formed by the comparison 
of the adjective. 

313. The Positive is the simple form of the adjective, used 
when an object is not compared ivith any other; as, Cold 
days, good deeds, practical lessons. 

314. The Comparative is the form of the adjective that 
expresses a higher or lower degree than the positive, used 
when tivo objects are compared; as, Colder days, better 
deeds, more practical lessons ; or, less cold days, less good 
deeds, less practical lessons. 

315. The Superlative is the form of the adjective that 
expresses the highest or lowest degree, used ivhen any number 
of objects more than two are compared; as, Coldest days, 
best deeds, most practical lessons ; or, least cold days, least 
good deeds, least practiced lessons. 

KINDS OF COMPARISON. 

316. There are two kinds of comparison, Ascending; as, 
valuable, more valuable, most valuable ; and Descending ; as, 
valuable, less valuable, least valuable. 

METHODS OF COMPARISON. 

317. There are three methods of comparison : - — 

(1) By different terminations ; as, loud, louder, loudest. 

(2) By different words ; as, bad, ivorse, ivorst. 

(3) By prefixes ; more, most ; less, least ; as, beautiful, 



106 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



more beautiful or less beautiful, most beautiful or least beau- 
tiful. 

(a) Monosyllables are compared by changing the termination of the 
positive ; as, loud, louder, loudest ; sweet, sweeter, sweetest. 

(b) Many dissyllables are compared like monosyllables ; as, happy % 
happier, happiest. (I" after a consonant is changed to i, before suffixing 
er or est.) 

(c) Words of more than two syllables, and words of two syllables that 
could not easily be pronounced with er or est added to the positive, are 
compared by prefixing to the positive more or less for the comparative, 
and most or least for the superlative; as, practicable, more practicable^ 
most practicable; doubtful, less doubtful, least doubtful. In parsing, 
more, most, less and least should not be separated from the following 
word. 

(d) Descending comparison has but one method — by prefixing less 
and least. 

(e) In poetry monosyllables are often compared by prefixes; as, "A 
form more fair, a face more sweet." 

(/) The following adjectives are compared by different words : — 
Positive. Comparative. Supt rlative. 

Good, Better, Best. 

Bad, evil, or ill, Worse, Worst. 

Much or many, More, Most. 

Little, Less, or lesser, Least. 

(g) The following adjectives have irregular terminations : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Aft, 


After, 


Aftermost. 


Far, 


Farther, 


Farthest, or Farthermost. 


Hind, 


Hinder, 


Hindermost. or Hindmost. 


Late, 


Later, or Latter, 


Latest, or Last. 


Low, 


Lower, 


Lowest, or Lowermost. 


h) The following 


; adjectives are defective in their comparison : — 


Positive. 


Comparative. 


Sn r i rlative. 


Out (adv.), 


Outer, Utter, 


Outermost, Utmost. 


In (prep.), 


Inner, 


Innermost, Inmost. 


Up (adv.), 


Upper, 


Uppermost, Upmost. 




Hither, 


Hithermost. 






Nether, 


Nethermost. 




Eld (obsolete), 


Elder, 


Eldest. 




Under, 


Undermost. 



REMARKS ON DEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 



107 



Rear, 

Front, 

Mid, 

Middle, 

North, Northern, 

South, Southern, 

East, Eastern, 

West, Western, 



Rearmost. 
Frontmost. 

Midmost. 

Middlemost. 

Northmost, Northernmost. 

Southmost, Southernmost. 

Eastmost, Easternmost. 

Westmost, Westernmost. 



(i) Adjectives representing qualities that cannot exist in different 
degrees do not ordinarily admit of comparison. These include : — 



Almighty, 

Certain, 

Chief, 

Circular, 

Conscious, 

Continual, 

Dead, 

Earthly, 

Empty, 

Everlasting, 

External, 



Extreme, 

Fall, 

False, 

Filial, 

Fluid, 

Free, 

Godly, 

Golden, 

Gratuitous, 

Heavenly, 

Human, 



Infinite, 

Lawful, 

Leaden, 

Living, 

Natural, 

Paternal, 

Perfect, 

Perpetual, 

Reverend, 

Right, 

Royal, 



Safe, 

Serene, 

Solid, 

Sound, 

Square, 

Subject, 

Supreme, 

Triangular, 

True, 

Universal, 

Void. 



(1) While the above words cannot logically be compared, it is not very 
uncommon to find such rhetorical expressions as fuller, rounder, most 
certain, most extreme, etc., meaning, nearer full, nearer round, most 
nearly certain, etc. 

(2) In parsing such words, do not compare them unless the compara- 
tive or superlative forms are used. 

(j) It will be observed that the two kinds of comparison, ascending 
and descending, give us in reality five degrees for every adjective admitting 
of comparison ; as, least cautious, less cautions, cautious, more cautious, 
most cautious. These five — or three, if the two comparatives be regarded 
as one, and the two superlatives as one — are the only degrees that can be 
expressed by regularly inflecting the adjective ; but by combining it with 
other words, the number of degrees expressed may be indefinitely in- 
creased ; as, somewhat cautious, very cautious, unusually cautious, remark- 
ably cautious, exceedingly cautious, too little cautious, a little too cautious, 
?mcautious, quite ?mcautious. And after we exhaust all our combinations 
of words there are left a great many degrees of quality that cannot and 
need not be expressed, just as objects have a great many qualities not 
expressed at all by adjectives. 

(k) The termination ish is sometimes given to some adjectives, forming 
what is called the diminutive degree, lower than the positive and yet 



108 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

different from the lower comparative or the lower superlative ; as, reddish, 
bluish, greenish. 

318. Parsing of Adjectives. 

1. Species. 4. Comparison. 6. Construction. 

2. Class. 5. Degree. 7. Rule. 

3. Sub-class. 

1. That old man was sick. 

That, adj., def., pronom., demon., and limits man, B. X. 

Old, adj., des., com., — old, older, oldest, — pos. degree, and limits 
man, 11. X. 

Sick, adj., pred., des., com., — sick, sicker, sickest, — pos. degree, and 
limits man, R. X. 

(a) The teacher may have the oral parsing of nouns and pronouns 
given according to abridged model. 

319. SELECTIONS. 

A. (1) The silent moon ascends the starry sky. 

(2) The weary traveller seeks a quiet rest. 

(3) The echoing hills gave back the rumbling thunder. 

(4) How many unkept promises and broken vows there are ! 

(5) The summer breezes blow soft and conl. 

(6) The annual, autumnal, desolating fires have almost destroyed 
the well-limbered country. 

(7) Horses are as valuable as mules. 

(8) Homer was a greater poet than Virgil. 

(9) The sweetest flowers fringed the little stream. 

(10) On the grassy bank stood a tall waving ash, sound to the very top. 

(11) There are two pear trees in the second row. 

(12) Who else came ? 

B. (1) A little learning is a dangerous thing I 

Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring. 

(2) Hope springs eternal in the In/man breast. 

(3) But he thought of his sister, proud and cold, 
And his mother, vain of her rank and gold. 

(4) The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old. 

(5) How brilliant and mirthful the light of her eye, 
Like a star glancing out from the blue of the sky ! 



REMARKS ON DEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 109 

(6) There brighter suns dispense serener light, 
And milder moons imparadise the night. 

(7) Silver and gold have I none. 

(8) She cooked the steak rare. 

(9) They painted the fence green. 

(10) Ancient history is, for the greater part, a story filled with wild- 
est fables and legends most incredible. 

(11) The hopeful mind and faithful heart 

Shall win and keep the better part. 

(12) Tlie sun that Brief December clay 
Rose cheerless over hills of gray, 
And, darkly circled, gave at noon 

A sadder light than waning moon. — Whittier. 

320. Outline of Adjectives. 

la. Kinds. 
lb. Descriptive or Qualifying : Sweet, golden, beautiful, awful, Asiatic, 
rushing, 
lc. Common: Good, sour, black. 
2c. Proper : Australian, Swiss. 

3c. Participial or Verbal : Bunning, broken, educated. 
26. Definitive or merely Limiting adjectives: An ox. Each apple. 
Six dollars. That barn. 
lc. Article. 
Id. Definite : The. 
2d. Indefinite. 

le. A, before a consonant. 
2e. An, before a vowel. 
2c. Numeral. 

Id. Indefinite ; as, Several, few, many. 
2d. Definite. 

le. Cardinal : One, twenty, one hundred. 
2e. Ordinal : First, twentieth, one hundredth. 
3e. Multiplicative : Twofold, threefold, tenfold. 
3c. Pronominal. 

Id. Distributive : Each, every, either, neither. 
2d. Demonstrative: This, that, these, those. 

3d. Interrogative : Which book will you have ? What reply did he 
make ? 
2a. Property or Comparison : A variation in form to express different 
degrees of quality. 
16. Kinds. 



110 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

lc. Ascending. 

2c. Descending. 
2b. Degrees. 

lc. Positive : That expressed by the simple form of the adjective ; as, 
good, small, beautiful. 

2c. Comparative : A higher or lower degree than the positive ; as, 
better, less good; smaller, less small; more beautiful, less 
beautiful. 

3c. Superlative : The highest or lowest degree of quality ; as, best, 
least good; smallest, least small ; most beautiful, least beau- 
tiful. 
36. Methods. 

lc. By different terminations ; as, loud, louder, loudest. 

2c. By different words ; as, good, better, best. 

3c. By prefixes: more, most; less, least; as, honest, more honest or 
less honest; most honest or least honest. 



SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES. 

321. Adjectives limit substantives. 

322. All liabilities to error in the use of adjectives may be 
named under the following heads : Choice, Number, Compari- 
son, Position. 

323. 1. Choice. — Care should be taken to select the 
adjective that most appropriately expresses the meaning 
intended. 

(a) See Dictionary and a book on synonyms for the adjectives, awful, 
lovely, nice, splendid, elegant, terrible, grand, bad. 

(b) Do not use : Good for well; less for fewer ; or both with same or 
alike ; as, both the same, both alike. 

(c) Never use an adjective for an adverb, or an adverb for an adjec- 
tive ; as, " Extreme bad weather ; " " She looks so sweetly." 

324. 2. Number. 

(a) Never use them for those. 

(b) Do not use these or those instead of this or that before such nouns 
as kind, sort, molasses, etc. 

(c) After numerals, the words pair, couple, dozen, hundred, thousand, 

etc., need not take the plural form ; as, four pair of boots ; five dozen 
peaches ; six couple of dancers ; four hundred head of sheep. 



REMARKS ON DEFINITE ADJECTIVES. Ill 

325. 3. Comparison. — The comparative degree is used 
when only two objects are compared ; the superlative, 
when there are more than two ; as, " He is the taller of 
the two ; " " She is more beautiful than her sister ; " 
" Socrates was the wisest of the Athenians ; " " She is 
the loveliest of women." 

326. Rules. — I. The superlative degree is used when 
the object to which it relates is one of those with tvhich it is 
compared; as, "Eve was the fairest of women." 

327. II. The comparative degree is used when the object 
to which it relates is not included among those with which it is 
compared ; as, " Eve was fairer than any of her daughters." 

(a) It would not be correct to say, either, Eve was fairer than any 
woman; or, Eve was the fairest of her daughters ; because the first ex- 
pression implies, either, that she was not a woman, or that she was fairer 
than herself ; and the second implies that she was one of her daughters. 

(b) In a series of coordinate adjectives differently compared, it is 
generally more elegant to place the shorter ones first; as, "She is 
younger, less hateful, and more beautiful, than her sister." 

(c) Avoid: (1) Double comparatives and superlatives; as, more 
wiser, most unkindest, etc. 

(2) Comparative and superlative forms of incomparable adjectives ; as, 
extremest, chief est, truest, more perfect, less universal, etc. 

328. 4. Position. — An adjective commonly comes just 
before the word it limits, but adjectives mag follow their nouns. 

(1) When used to complete the predicate ; as, " The way was long, the 
wind was cold." 

(2) When the adjective is modified by a prepositional or infinitive 
phrase ; as, " His mother, vain of her rank and gold ; " " Apples good to be 



(3) When the adjective modifies a pronoun ; as, " Who else came ? " 

(4) When the adjective is resultant, or factitive ; as, "They made the 
stick straight.' 1 '' 

(5) In poetry ; as, " He thought of his sister, proud and cold." 

(a) There are several other cases in which adjectives follow their 
nouns, but these are the principal ones. 

(6) When the noun is limited by both an ordinal and a cardinal adjec- 
tive, there is a question as to which should come first. Here authorities 



112 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

have not agreed. Shall we say, the first three, or the three first 9 If we 
insist upon a strictly literal interpretation of the language, we are com- 
pelled to choose between two absurdities. It would be absurd to speak 
of the first three, unless there were also a second three, and it is absurd to 
speak of the three first, unless we have reference to three different series. 
Ordinarily, I think, a careful critic would have to allow either expression, 
but at present the best usage seems to put the ordinal first. But some- 
times either is preferable to the other according to the meaning intended ; 
thus, if there are two single columns of boys, and we wish to refer to the 
leaders, we should say the two first boys ; but if there is one double 
column of boys, and we wish to refer to the first couple, we should say 
the first two boys. 

(c) Adjectives frequently modify nouns understood ; as, "Many [per- 
sons] are called, but few [persons] are chosen." 

(d) A participial or infinitive phrase, or a clause, may be modified by 
a predicate adjective; as, To see the stars is delightful. That he will 
come is not certain. Sometimes the adjective modifies an entire sentence 
attributively ; as, Contrary to what commonly occurs, he has not come 
back any more. 

(e) An adjective sometimes seems to modify another adjective. It 
must then be parsed as an adverb, or the two must be parsed together as 
one adjective ; as, The iron is red hot. She wore a deep blue dress. 

(/) An adjective frequently modifies a noun as modified by some other 
word ; as, We keep no cheap goods. Here, no modifies goods as modified 
by cheap. 

(g) The adjectives, like, nigh, near, and next are frequently followed 
by objectives. It is better, in such cases, to call these words prepositions 
governing the following nouns or pronouns ; as, She is not like me. lie 
lives near us. Some grammarians prefer to call these words adjectives or 
adverbs, and supply the preposition to to govern the following objective. 

329. Review of Adjectives. 

(1) Show why we have adjectives. (2) Define adjective. (3) Name 
the two general classes of the adjective and define each. (4) Name and 
illustrate the sub-classes of each class. (5) What are the three classes of 
adjectives with reference to the manner of modification ? (G) Define and 
illustrate each. (7) What is comparison ? (8) Why are adjectives com- 
pared ? (9) What adjectives can be compared ? (10) In how many de- 
grees may a quality exist? (11) How many of these are expressed by 
the adjective itself '? (12) When do we use the positive degree, the com- 
parative, the superlative? (13) Name and illustrate two kinds of com- 
parison. (14) Tbree methods of comparison. (15) Name and illustrate 
the chief forms of error in the use of the adjective. 



THE VERB. 113 



THE VERB. 

330. 1. The snow falls. 

2. The boys beat their drums. 

3. All our tasks have been finished. 

4. Have all the gift of prophecy ? 

5. We wish the child to become a scholar. 

6. The lady speaking to you is Lolita. 

331. In these sentences the italicized words express 
relations between substances and attributes. Falls, beat, 
have been finished, and have are words that can assert or 
affirm the relation ; to become and speaking can only assume 
it. All such words are verbs. 

332. The Verb is the part of speech that is used to assert 
or assume relation ; as : — 

Henry plows; Troy ivas ; The house stands ; They want Henry to 
plow ; They wanted Troy to be ; We want the house to stand ; The boy 
plowing is Henry; The time being will soon he past; The house standing 
on the hill is ours. 

(a) In the first three sentences the verbs assert, but in the last six 
they assume, action, being, and state. 

(b) Here the word assert must be taken in a very wide sense, so as to 
include interrogation and command. 

(c) The word verb, from the Latin verbum, meaning word, is applied 
to this part of speech perhaps because it is the most important. We can 
say of the verb what can be said of no other part of speech — that without 
it a sentence cannot exist. 

(d) Other parts of speech — prepositions, conjunctions, conjunctive 
adverbs, and relative pronouns — can express relation ; only the verb can 
assert or assume it. 

(e) The verb is not always a single word, but is sometimes a verb 
phrase ; as : — 



114 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

The fact might have been discovered; 
The property has been taken possession of. 

(/) The predicate of every sentence must be a verb or contain one, 
for it is the only part of speech that can predicate. 



CLASSIFICATION OP VEEBS. 

333. Verbs are classified upon five different bases. 

334. (1) According to their Relation to Subjects. — By 

observing the sentences, 

I study, He studies, They study, 

we see that the form of the verbs is modified by the 
person and number of their subjects. They are there- 
fore called finite verbs. The statement, finite verbs have 
person and number, means only that their form is often 
determined by the person and number of their sub- 
jects. 

335. But in the following sentences, 

She wants me to 'plow, She wants him to plow, She wants them 
to plow; 

She saw me plowing, She saw him plowing, She saw them plowing ; 

it will be seen that the form of the italicized verbs remains 
the same, regardless of the person and number of their 
subjects. They are therefore called in-finite verbs. The 
statement, in-finite verbs do not have person and number, 
merely means that their form is never modified by the 
person and number of their subjects. 

336. A Finite Verb is one whose form may be modified by 
the person and number of its subject. 

337. An In-finite Verb is one whose form is never modified 
by the 'person and number of its subject. 



THE VERB. 115 

(a) Owing to the slight inflection found in English, the modification of 
even our finite verbs for person and number is, except in the case of the 
verb to be, confined exclusively to the present tense. Thus : — 

I write, He writes, They write ; 

I wrote, He wrote, They wrote. 

I am, He is, They are; 

I was, He was, They were. 

(b) The two forms of the in-finite verb illustrated above are respec- 
tively the infinitive and the participle. 

(c) Every transitive verb has four infinitives and four participles; as : — 

to write, to have written, to be written, to have been written ; 
writing, having written, being written, having been written. 

Intransitive verbs have only two infinitives and two participles. 

(d) Some grammarians of note class infinitives and participles with 
nouns and adjectives, but a very pronounced preponderance of scholar- 
ship regards them as forms of the verb; and that in their use they 
resemble verbs more closely than they do any other part of speech is 
abundantly shown in the discussion, Articles 526 to 572. 

(e) The thorough discussion of infinitives and participles should be 
deferred till after the pupil has completed his study of all the parts of 



338. (2) According to their Action's Relation to Objects. 

— In all such sentences as — 

The boy plows the field, The man bought an ox ; 

The field was plowed by the boy, The ox was bought by the man ; 

it will be seen that the action expressed by each verb is 
represented as going across from an agent to an object. Such 
verbs are said to be transitive, because transitive means to go 
across. 

339. But in such sentences as, 

The dew sparkles, She walks gracefully, 

while each verb expresses the action of an agent, it does 
not represent it as going across to an object. Such verbs 



116 GKAMMAE OF THE ENGLISH SENTEtfCE. 

are said to be intransitive, because intransitive means not to 

go across. 

340. A Transitive Verb is one that represents tJie action of 
an agent as terminating upon an object. 

341. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not represent 
the action of an agent as terminating upon an object. 

(a) It is inexcusably loose to define a transitive verb as one that 
takes an object, and an intransitive verb as one that does not take an 
object. Precisely fifty per cent of the transitive verbs never take objects ; 
that is, every transitive verb in the active voice has its corresponding verb 
in the passive voice, and no verb in the passive voice takes an object, and 
every verb in the passive voice is transitive. We see then that many verbs 
that do not take objects are transitive. A transitive verb does not always 
take an object, but its action does. 

(b) Even an action that terminates upon an object may be 
expressed by an intransitive verb ; as, " He leaned against the post," "I 
sat on a box." Not only must a transitive verb express action that termi- 
nates on an object ; it must, without the aid of a preposition, represent 
the termination of the action on an object ; as : — 

He split the post, I broke the box. 

The post ivas split, The box was broken. 

(c) Verbs commonly transitive are often intransitive. (1) When 

used so as to refer to no definite object; as, " Henry studies, Mary reads." 
But here not all grammarians are agreed. Some say that if Henry studies, 
he must study something, and if Mary reads she must read something, 
and that the verbs are therefore transitive, although there is no object 
expressed. But the parsing of any part of speech must always be deter- 
mined by the office it performs in the particular sentence in which it is 
found, and in the above sentences the verbs are used so as to refer to the 
agents only, without suggesting to our minds any thought of objects. 
They are therefore intransitive. But the object need not always be 
expressed for the verb to be transitive. Thus in " He is the man I saw," 
saw has no object expressed, but it is transitive, because its object, that, is 
clearly implied. In the sentence, "Dora studies, but Laura dues not," 
both verbs are intransitive, having reference to agents only; but in the 
sentence, " Dora studies algebra, but Laura does not," the verbs are both 
transitive, because each represents the action of the agent as passing over 
to the definite object, algebra. (2) When the active form is used in a 
passive signification ; as, "The instrument tunes easily ;" this sentence 
is equivalent to "The instrument is easily tuned.' 1 '' 



THE VERB. 117 

(77) Verbs usually intransitive are often transitive. (1) When 
they have objects similar in signification to themselves ; as, " He dreamed 
a dream." " She sang a song." " That man lived a righteous life." It 
seems to be almost the universal custom among grammarians to speak of 
such as the above as being "intransitive verbs that govern objects," but 
such expressions very plainly involve a contradiction of terms, and should 
be rejected. By definition, any verb is transitive if it represents the action 
of the agent as terminating upon an object, no matter about the significa- 
tion of the object. It will never be found necessary to depart from this 
definition, and any attempt to do so will be productive of nothing but 
confusion. (2) When used in a causative sense; as " Paul trots his 
pony." " The general marched his armies." (3) When used in a poetic 
sense; as, " Eyes looked love to eyes." " She can look daggers." 

(e) A transitive verb expresses action only ; an intransitive verb 
expresses action, being, or state. 

(/) Sometimes an intransitive verb in the passive form is made 
transitive by being compounded with a preposition, as, " The house ivas 
disposed of." "We were laughed at." " The property had been taken 
possession of 1 

(gr) It may be allowable in a few cases to regard a preposition or an 
adverb as part of the verb in the active form : " We should never put off 
duty." "The man came to." "He tried to get up." "Hese£ up the 
stove." But this should never be done except when the compound is 
equivalent to a single word, and could not be separated into different parts 
of speech without marring the meaning. 

(h) In such sentences as, "She laughed herself hoarse," " He slept 
himself weary," "They drank themselves drunk," no very satisfactory 
disposition can be given of the italicized words following the intransitive 
verb ; but it seems preferable to parse any such words as the subject of 
the infinitive to be understood. 

342. (3) According to their Completeness of Predication. — 

The two sentences, 

He steals, and He is a thief, 

may convey precisely the same meaning. But it will be 
observed that in the first, the predication is completed by 
the verb steals, which both asserts and expresses the attri- 
bute : while in the second, the verb is does not complete 
the predicate, but only asserts the attribute that is ex- 
pressed by another word, thief. Steals is a verb of com- 



118 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

plete predication, and because it contains the attribute it 
asserts, it is called an attributive verb ; is is a verb of in- 
complete predication, and because it only couples to its sub- 
ject an attribute that is expressed by another word, it is 
called a copulative verb. 

343. An Attributive Verb is one that expresses the attribute 
it asserts or assumes. 

344. A Copulative Verb is one that asserts or assumes an 
attribute expressed by some other word or ivords. 

(a) The literal meaning of the word copula is to couple or fasten 
together. 

(b) There are few grammatical distinctions more perplexing than 
that between attributive and copulative verbs. It must be mastered. 

(c) All active transitive verbs are in one sense verbs of incomplete 
predication. They differ from copulative verbs in this: what completes 
an active transitive verb is an objective complement, but what completes 
a copulative verb is an attributive complement. Distinguish with care : — 

George was & farmer, and George saw a farmer ; 
Bob is a good horse, and Bob has a good horse. 

(d) The complement of a copulative verb is always a substantive or 
an adjective, or some expression so used, It may be a noun, pronoun, 
adjective, infinitive, participle, phrase, or clause. Let the class illustrate. 

(e) The predicate always includes a copula and an attribute whether 
the two are expressed together or separately ; as : — 

Paul preaches, and Paul is a preacher. 

Some logicians and grammarians do not regard the copula as a part of 
the predicate ; but the predicate is always a verb or contains one, since it 
is the only part of speech that can predicate. 

(/) Many verbs in the passive voice may be used as copulas ; as, 
" She was considered honest." " I was elected chairman." 

(g) Although the verb to be is the only pure copula, it is often 
purely attributive. It is copulative when it asserts or assumes an attri- 
bute, and attributive when it denotes merely to exist. In Whatever is, 
is right, the first is is attributive, and the second copulative. In the two 
following sentences all the verbs are attributive: (1) Troy was, but is 
no more. (2) What was, is no more, and what is, will not be. 

(/<) How to distinguish a Copulative Verb. — It is of ten difficult, 
and sometimes impossible, in isolated sentences, to distinguish the passive 



THE VERB. 119 

voice from the copulative verb to be with a predicate adjective or parti- 
ciple. For example, in such sentences, as " The pitcher was broken,' 1 '' "The 
house was covered," "The field was plowed" "That room teas papered," 
etc., we are unable to determine the meaning, and therefore cannot be posi- 
tive concerning their disposition. Each may mean one or the other of two 
things, which would be made evident by the connection in which it is used. 
Thus, The field was plowed may refer to a particular act, in which case 
was plowed is a passive verb, or it may simply assert the condition of the 
field, in which case was is copulative, and plowed a predicate adjective. 

Every declarative sentence may be regarded as the answer to a question, 
and before we can dispose of the above sentences we must know the 
questions they answer. Thus, they may be the respective answers to the 
questions : What was done by the cat ? What was done with the boards? 
What was done with the plow ? What ivas done with the paper ? If so, 
was broken, teas covered, was plowed, and was papered are passive verbs, 
referring to some act that took place in some time, in some manner, and 
by some actor. But if the sentences are intended to answer the ques- 
tions : Why did you not buy the pitcher ? Why did he prefer to sleep in 
the house ? Why did he not walk through the field ? Why did she like 
that room best ? then, in each, was is a copula, asserting of the subject 
the condition expressed by the adjective that follows. If the verb is 
modified by a phrase denoting manner, we know that it is the act that is 
referred to, and not the condition. Thus, in " The child's heart was broken 
by its mother's death," ivas broken is evidently a passive verb expressing 
the action, but without the phrase its construction would be indeterminate. 
A phrase expressing time may modify a copula that is followed by a 
predicate adjective. In ' '■The child's heart has been broken since its mother's 
death," has been is clearly a copula, and broken & predicate adjective. 

(i) Classes of Copulas. — The only pure copula is some form of the 
verb to be, but many other verbs are used as impure copulas. In She is 
happy, is is purely copulative, having no other use than to assert the attri- 
bute happy. In the sentences, "He seems honest," "They appear well," 
etc., the verbs are almost purely copulative, but in the sentence, "He came 
hurrying," hurrying seems to be almost purely adverbial in its use. And 
between these two extremes we have all the different varieties of predication 
by copulas ; as, "They look tired," "He sits erect," "The apple tastes 
sweet," "He came attended," " She walks a queen," etc. In each of these 
examples the complement is partly attributive and partly adverbial in con- 
struction. In the last sentence, for example, the meaning is partly that 
she has a queenly walk, and partly that her walk shows her to be a queen. 

( j) A complex or double copula is a combination of a pure and an 
impure copula; as in such expressions as, "She seems to be happy,'" 
" They appear to be good," etc. 



120 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(k) Uses of the Verb To Be. — It may be well to note in passing 
that the verb to be has three distinct uses: one as an auxiliary ; as, '• The 
man ivas playing with the children ; " and two as a principal verb, either 
attributive or copulative, which are explained above. 

(?) The construction of a phrase may often be determined by de- 
termining the construction of the single word that may take its place. 
Thus, "He is without a home" is the same as "He is homeless.'''' But 
many times phrases that are adverbial in construction are incorrectly 
regarded as predicate adjectives ; as, " He is in the house." In this sen- 
tence is is attributive, and in the house is an adverbial element. When- 
ever such phrases following the verb to be express attributes that exist in 
the agents, they are used as predicate adjectives, but this cannot always 
be determined from the form of the sentences. Thus, "He is in health " 
means "Health is in him." Is is copulative, and in health is the attribute. 
But the sentence of exactly the same form, " He is in Texas" does not 
mean "Texas is in him" Is is attributive, and in Texas adverbial. 

(m) An attributive verb may often be expanded into a copula and an 
attributive complement ; "She giggles" = "She is a giggler ;" " lie 
owns the farm " = " He is the owner of the farm ; " " Pay your debts " = 
" Be thou the payer of thy debts." 

345. (4) According to their Form. — Certain forms or 
parts of the verb are called Principal Parts, because it is 
from these that all the other parts are obtained. The 
principal parts are called : — 

346. Present Indicative : the simple form of the verb, 
or the form always found in the English dictionary ; as, 
see, plow, am. 

347. Past Indicative : the form of the word used to rep- 
resent past time indefinitely ; as, saw, plowed, was. 

348. Perfect Participle: the form of the verb that ex- 
presses time more definitely than the Past Indicative, by 
relating it to some other time, either past, present, or fu- 
ture, implied by the sentence ; as seen, ploived, been. 

349. The above examples show that some verbs form 
their past indicative and perfect participle by changing the 
ending of the present indicative to ed ; as, plow, ploived, 
plowed; move, moved, moved; plant, planted, planted; 
these are called regular verbs. 



THE VERB. 121 

350. The verbs that do not form their past indicative 
and perfect participle in this way are called irregular verbs. 

351. A Regular Verb is one that forms its Past Indicative 
and Perfect Participle by changing the ending of the Present 
Indicative to ed. 

352. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its Past 
Indicative and Perfect Participle by changing the ending 
of the Present Indicative to ed. 

353. Irregular verbs are of three kinds : — 

354. Complete : those having a full set of principal parts ; 
as, ivrite, wrote, written. 

355. Defective: those lacking some of the principal 
parts ; as, beware, ought, quoth. 

356. Redundant: those having more than a sufficiency 
of principal parts ; as, eat, strike, cleave. 

{a) Some grammarians name, also, the present active infinitive and 
the present active participle as principal parts ; as, to see, to plow, to 
be: seeing, plowing, being. 

(5) Often, as in case of the verb love, the final e of the present indica- 
tive must be dropped before ed is added to form the past indicative and 
perfect participle. 

(c) The perfect participle is often called the past participle; and the 
past indicative, the imperfect. 

(d) Strong and "Weak Verbs. — A strong verb is one that forms its 
past indicative and perfect participle by varying the root vowel ; as, steal, 
stole, stolen; sing, sang, sung. Commonly, but not always, the perfect 
participle of a strong verb ends in en. A weal, verb is one that forms its" 
past indicative and perfect participle by adding ed, d, or t to the present 
indicative ; as abash, abashed; hear, heard ; feel, felt. 

(e) It will be observed that the classification of verbs into strong and 
weak corresponds closely but not completely with that into irregular and 
regular. All strong verbs are irregular, but not all irregular verbs are 
strong. Also, all regular verbs are weak, but not all weak verbs are reg- 
ular. Originally all our verbs were irregular in their conjugation ; but 
there has been a tendency for them to form their past indicative and per- 
fect participle by adding to the present indicative, eel, d, or t. Those that 
have yielded to the tendency, including all regular verbs, are called weak 
verbs; those that have withstood the tendency, including most of our 
irregular verbs, are called strong verbs. 



122 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

357. The following list shows the principal parts of 
most irregular verbs, and also what verbs are defective 
and what redundant. 

358. Every student of English grammar, indeed every 
one that speaks the English language, should thoroughly 
master our irregular verbs, for it is in the use of these that 
arise a multitude of the grossest errors. 

359. List of Irregular Verbs. 

In using irregular verbs, we are liable to error for the most part only 
in the use of those whose past indicative and perfect participle are not 
alike. These verbs have therefore been given first, and separate from the 
rest, that they may be learned perfectly, r denotes that the regular 
form may also be used instead of the other. * denotes that the form un- 
der it is seldom used, being ancient, poetic, or of late introduction. The 
form supposed to be of the best present usage is placed first. The 
second form of some verbs is preferable, when applied in a certain way ; 
as, "freighted with spices and silks," "fraught with mischief ; " " thun- 
der- struck," "sorrow-sfrn'c&ett." — Memorize only the unmarked forms. 





1. The Two Past 


Forms 


Different. 


Present. 


Past Ind. 


Perfect Part. 


Present. 


Past Ind. Perfect Part. 


Am, 

Arise, 


was, 

arose, 


been, 
arisen. 


Begin, 


( began, ) 

< ° J begun. 

1 begun,* J 


Awake, 


awoke, r. 


r awaked, 
I awoke.* 


Bid, 


bid, bade, < , . ' 

I bidden. 


Bear bore, bare, born. 

(bring forth) , 
Bear bore, borne. 


Bite, 
Blow, 


f bitten, 

blt - {bit. 

blew. r. ,* blown, r.* 


(carry) 
Beat 


beat, 
became, 


r beaten, 
I beat, 
become. 


Break, 


j broke, broken, 
I brake,* broke.* 


Become, 


Chide, 


, . , r chidden, 
chid, < ,., 
1 chid. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Choose, 


chose, chosen. 


B 


r begot, 
I begat,* 


begotten, 


Cleave, 


f cleaved, i 

< . 'V cleaved. 
, I clave, 1 * J 




begot. 


(adhere] 



1 "My tongue clave to the roof of my mouth." — Dickens. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



123 



Present. 
Cleave r 
{split), t 
Come, 

Crow, 



Past Incl. 

cleft, clove, 

clave, 

came, 

crowed, 

crew, 

dared, 1 

durst, 



r crowed, i 
I crew, J 



Dare 

(ven- 
ture) , 
(Dare — dared, 

challenge, 
Dive, { 



Do, 
Draw, 



dived, i 
dove, J 
did, 
drew, 



Drive, 

Eat, 

Fall, 

Fly, 

Forbear, 

Forget, 

Forsake, 
Freeze, 



Get, 

Give, 
Go, 
Grave, 
Grow, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hold, 



got, 

gave, 
went, 
graved, 
grew, 

r heaved, 

I hove, 
hewed, 

hid, 
held, 



Perfect Part. 
cleft, 
cloven, 
come. 

crowed, 
dared. 



Drink, drank, < 



drove, 

ate, 

fell, 

flew, 

forbore, 

forgot, 

forsook, 
froze, 



Freight, freighted, 



dared.) 

dived. 

done. 

drawn. 

drunk, 

drank.* 

driven. 

eaten.* 

fallen. 

flown. 

forborne. 

forgotten, 

forgot. 

forsaken. 

frozen. 

freighted, 

fraught. 

got, 

gotten.* 

given. 

gone. 

graven, r. 

grown. 

heaved, 

hoven.* 

hewn, r. 

hidden, 

hid. 

held, 

holden. 2 



Know, 
Lade 

(load), 



Past Ind. Perfect Part. 
knew, known, 

laded, laden, r. 



r leaned, 
Lean ' { l&nt, 

r leaped, 
Leap ' {leapt,. 
Lie lay, 

(repose) , 
Mow, mowed, 


leaned, 

leant. 

leaped, 

leapt.* 

lain. 

mown, r. 


Prove, 


proved, 


j proved, 
I proven .* 


Rend, 
Ride, 


rent, 
rode, 


/ rent, 
trended. 3 * 
j rode, 
I ridden. 


Ring, 

Rise, 


rang, rung, rung, 
rose, risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven, r.* 


Run, 
Saw, 


ran, run 

sawed, 


* run. 
sawn, r. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seethe, 


f seethed, 
I sod, 


seethed, 
sodden. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 
Shave, 


shaped, 
shaved, 


j shaped, 
I shapen.* 
r shaved, 
I shaven. 



Shear, 
Show, 
Shrink, 

Sing, 

Sink, 
Slay, 
Slide, 



f sheared, ^ 
I shore,* J 

showed, 
f shrank, 
I shrunk, 
(sang, | 
I sung, J 
\ sank, "> 
t sunk, J 

slew, 

slid, r., 



shorn, r. 

shown, r. 

shrunk, 

shrunken.* 

sung. 



sunk. 

slain, 
j- slidden, 
I slid, r. 



1 "This line he dared not cross." — Macaulay. 2 Beholden ; withholden.* 
' Come as the winds came when forests are rended." — W. Scott. 



124 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



Present. 

Smite, 

Sow 
{scatter) 

Speak, 

Spit, 

Spring, 

Steal, 

Stride, 

Strike, 

Strive, 
Strow, 



Past In,/. Perfect Pari. 

\ smitten, 

L smit. 
sowed, sown, r. 



smote, 



j spoke, "» 



\ spake, i 



/ spit, 
I spat * 
f sprang, -> 
\ sprung, I 

stole, 
j strode, 
\ strid, 

struck, 



strove, r. 
strowed, 



Present. 

Abide, 

Behold, 

Belay, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bestead,* 

Bet, 

Betide, 

Bind, 
Bleed, 

Blend, 

Bless, 

Breed, 

Bring, 
Build, 

Burn, 



spoken. 

spit, 
spitten.* 

sprung. 

stolen, 
stridden, 
strid. 
r struck, 
I stricken. 
,* striven, r.* 
strown, /-. 



Prem »/. 
Swear, 
Swell, 

Swim, 

Take, 
Tare, 

Thrive, 

Throw, 

Tread, 

Wax, 

Wear, 
Weave, 

Write, 



Past ind, 

j swore, ^ 
\ sware, J 

swelled, 
r swam, | 
I swum, / 

took, 

tore, 
( throve, 
1 thrived, 

threw, r. 
( trod, 
1 trode, 

waxed, 

wore, 

wove, r., 
\ wrote, 
L writ,* 



f wrote, i 
\ writ,* J 



Perfect Part. 
sworn, 
swollen, r. 
swum. 

taken. 

torn. 

thriven, 

thrived. 
* thrown, r* 

trodden. 

trod. * 
r waxed, 
I waxen. 

worn. 

woven, r* 

written. 



2. The Two Past or the Three Forms Alike. 



Past In, I. 
abode, r.* 
beheld, 
belaid, r., 
bent, r., 
bereft, r., 
besought, 
bestead,* 
bet, ?*., 

j betided, 

I betid,* 
bound, 
bled, 

j blended, 

I blent,* 

j blessed, 

t blest, 
bred, 
brought, 
built, r., 

f burned, 

I burnt, 



Perfect Part. 

abode, r.* 

beheld. 

belaid, r. 

bent, r. 

bereft, r. 

besought. 

bestead.* 

bet, r. 

betided, 

betid* 

bound. 

bled. 

blended, 

blent* 

blessed, 

blest. 

bred. 

brought. 

built, r. 

burned, 

burnt. 



Present. 

Burst, 

Buy, 

Cast, 

Catch, 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

Cost, 

Creep, 

Cut, 

Deal, 

Dig, 

Dream, 

Dress, 

Dwell, 

Feed, 

Feel, 

Fight, 

Find, 



Past Ind. 

burst, 

bought, 

cast, 

caught, r. 

clung, 
f clothed, 
I clad, 

cost, 

crept, 

cut, 

dealt, r.,* 

dug, >•., 
f dreamed, 
I dreamt, 
j dressed, 
I drest,* 

dwelt, r., 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 



Perfect Part. 
burst, ?*.* 
bought, 
cast. 
* caught, r.* 
clung. 
clothed, 
clad, 
cost, 
crept, 
cut. 

dealt, r* 
dug, r. 
dreamed, 
dreamt, 
dressed, 
drest.* 
dwelt, r. 
fed. 
felt, 
fought, 
found. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



125 



Present. 


Past Ind. 


Perfect Part. 


Present. 


Past Ind. 


Perfect Part. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Quit, 


quit, ?*., 


quit, r. 


Gild, 


r gilded, 
t gilt, 


gilded, 
gilt. 


Rap, 


r rapped, 

I rapt, 


rapped, 
rapt. 3 


Gird, 


girt, r. , 


girt, r. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Reave, 


reft, ?\,* 


reft, r .* 


Hang, 


hung, r., 


hung, r. 1 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Have (prin- had 


had. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


cipal verb), 




Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard, 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Hit, 


bit, 


hit. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 




r knelt, 
1 kneeled, 


knelt, 


Shine, 


shone, r.,* 


- shone, ?\* 


Kneel, 


kneeled. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Knit, 


knit, ?\, 


knit, r. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Lead, 


led, 


•led. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 




j learned, 
I learnt, 


learned, 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Learn, 


learnt. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Slink, 


slunk, 


slunk. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Slit, 


slit, ?\, 


slit, r. 




flighted, 
tlit, 


lighted, 


Smell, 


smelt, r., 


smelt, r. 


Light, 


lit. 


Speed, 


sped, r.,* 


sped, r* 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Spell, 


j spelled, 
I spelt, 


spelled, 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


spelt. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Spill, 


spilt, ?\, 


spilt, r. 


Pass, 


rpassed, 
1 past * 


passed, 


Spin, - 


spun, 


spun. 


past. 2 


Split, 


split, r.,* 


split, r. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Spoil, 


r spoiled, 


spoiled, 


Pen {fence penned, 


penned, 


\ spoilt,* 


spoilt* 


in), 


pent, 


pent. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


(Pen — 






Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


write, 


penned, 


penned. ) 


Stave, 


stove, ?*., 


stove, r. 


Plead, 


j plead, 
t pled, 


plead, 


Stay, 


staid, v., 


staid, ?\ 4 


plead. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 



1 Hang, hanged, hanged : to suspend by the neck with intent to kill ; but 
the distinction is not always observed. 2 Past is used as an adjective or as 
a noun. 3 Rap, rapt, rapt: to seize with rapture. 4 Stay, stayed, stayed: 
to cause to stop. 



126 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



Present. 

Sting, 

Stink, 

String, 

Sweat, 

Sweep, 

Swing, 

Teach, 

Tell, 

Think, 

Thrust, 

Wake, 

Wed, 

Weep, 
Wet, 
Win, 
Wind, 

Work, 



Past Tnd. 

stung, 
( stunk, ■» 
I stank,* J 

strung, r. 
j sweat, r., 
X swet, 

swept, 

swung, 

taught, 

told, 

thought, 

thrust, 

woke, r., 
j wedded, 
t wed,* 

wept, 

wet, r., 

won, 

wound, r 
j worked, 
1 wrought, 



Perfect Part. 
stung. 

stunk. 

* strung, f* 

sweat. 

swet. 

swept. 

swung. 

taught. 

told. 

thought. 

thrust. 

woke, r. 

wedded, 

wed.* 

wept. 

wet, r. 

won. 
., wound, r. 

worked, 

wrought. 



Wring 

Beware, 

Can, could, 

Do (aux'y) did, 

H ? ve , , | had, 
(aux'y), \ ' 

May, might, 

Must, must, 

Ought, ought, 

quoth, 

should, 

I would, 
I willed, 



Past /»<?. Perfect Part. 
wrung, r.,* wrung, r.* 



Shall, 

Will 
(aux'y), 

(Will — 
wish, be- 
queath,) 

Wit, 1 

Wot* I 

Wis* 

Weet. 



willed.) 



et,*J 



wot,* 
wist,* 
wote,* 



360. (5) According to their Rank. — From the sen- 
tences, " I plow," " I can plow," " I will plow," " I must 
plow," we see that the action is expressed by the verb 
plow, and that the verbs can, will, must, are used to 
modify, in some way, the manner of the expression. Be- 
cause they are used thus to aid other verbs, they are called 
auxiliary verbs; while verbs that may be used either 
with or without auxiliaries are called 'principal verbs. 

361. Auxiliary verbs are those used in the conjugation 
of other verbs. 

362. Principal verbs are those that may be used either 
with or ivithout auxiliaries. 

(a) The auxiliaries are be and have in all their forms ; do, did ; may, 
might; can, could; must; fill, would; shall, should. 

(b) Be and have in all their forms, do, did, would, and will are often 
used as principal verbs ; as, " I do the work," " He did it," '• I would that 
all men were honest," " He willed me his property." 



THE VERB. 127 

(c) An auxiliary verb may express : — 

(1) Progression ; as, " The men are building the barn." 

(2) Passivity ; as, "The bowl was broken. 1 '' 

(3) Time; as, "They were talking'''' (past). "They are talking'''' 
(present). "They will talk" (future). 

(4) Emphasis ; as, " You did tell me." "You do have the money." 

(5) Power or ability; as, "I can assist you." "I could not see 
him." 

(6) Completion ; as, " I have finished the work." " I had not /zeard 
him." 

(7) Permission; as, " You may come in." 

(8) Probability or possibility; as, "It way ram before night." 
"You may die to-day." 

(9) Beasonableness ; as, "The question might be asked, how he hap- 
pened to be there." That is, it would be reasonable to ask. 

(10) Compulsion; as, " You shall pay me." " He shall obey." 

(11) Necessity ; as, " We must suffer the consequences." 

(12) Duty ; as, " We should be respectful to the aged." 

(13) Willingness ; as, "I toould pay you if I could." 

(14) Adaptation; as, " This will do." 

(15) Tendency ; as, "The bloom of youth will fade away." 

(16) Interrogation ; as, "2>o you believe her?" " Shall I assist 
you ? " This idea is expressed by the position of the auxiliary. 

(17) Determination, Promise, or Command; as, "I will have it." 
"You shall have your money." " Thou shalt not steal." 

USES OF THE AUXILIARIES. 

363. (1) Do in the present and did in the past are used 
principally for emphasis ; as, " Yon do have the money." 
"I did give it to you." 

364. (2) Can in the present and could in the past ex- 
press the power or ability of the agent to perform the 
act ; as, "I can do the work." " She could fill my position." 

365. (3) May in the present and might in the past ex- 
press liberty or permission ; as, " You may stay." " It might 
be done." 

(a) Might sometimes expresses possibility ; as, "It might have been." 
May often expresses probability ; as, " She may be sick." 

(b) May is placed before the subject to ask a question or express a 
wish ; as, "May I go ? " "May you always be happy." 



128 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(c) Can is often incorrectly used for may; as, "Can I use your 
book?" "Can the children play with me?" 

366. (4) Must expresses necessity — physical, intellec- 
tual, or moral ; as, " That star must be above the horizon 
to-night." "If you admit his premises, you must accept 
his conclusion." "We must tell the truth." 

367. (5) Shall, should ; will, would. — There are, perhaps, 
no four words in the language more frequently misused 
than shall, should, will, and would. Even our very best 
writers are sometimes guilty of using will for shall, or 
would for should ; but carelessness is the only excuse that 
can be offered for such a blunder, and whoever persists in 
misusing these words must acknowledge either that he is 
too ignorant to master the distinction that ought to be 
made, or too careless to observe it. 

368. Rules. — (1) Shall, in the first person, simply fore- 
tells ; in the second and third, it expresses a promise, com- 
mand, or determination of the speaker. " I shall know 
presently." "You shall have the reward." " Thou shalt 
not steal." "The nation shall be free." 

369. (2) Will, in the first person, not only foretells, but 
expresses a promise or determination of the speaker ; in 
the second and third, it only foretells. "I will pay you." 
"I will have my pay." "You will be pleased with the 
book." " He will come to-morrow." 

370. (3) When the sense demands such a change in the 
mode or tense, use should for shall, and would for will. 
"We would assist you if we could." "You should try 
again." 

(a) In interrogative sentences, shall denotes that the act is under 
the volition or control of something external to the agent, and will implies 
that the act is under the control of the agent. 

Shall I go ? Shall you go ? Shall he go ? 
Will you go ? Will he go ? 



THE VERB. 129 

Will can never be used literally in the first person, for no one can be 
supposed to know the speaker's will better than he knows it. But by a 
very common and very forcible rhetorical figure, will in the first person 
may be used with fine effect. The figure is Interrogation, according to 
which a sentence having the form of a question is in reality a very posi- 
tive declaration. If the question contains a negative particle it is gen- 
erally intended to imply an affirmative answer ; but without such a 
particle it suggests a negative answer. Thus, "Will I not demand my 
money?" means, " 7 certainly will demand my money'''' ; and "Willi 
tolerate his slander ? " means, " I certainly will not tolerate his slander." 

(5) Will is often used in the third person simply to express a general 
truth more emphatically than it could be expressed by the present tense 
of the verb ; as, "Accidents will happen." "Flowers will die." 

(c) When the verb is in the subjunctive mode, shall denotes nothing 
bnt futurity ; as, "If he shall leave before Monday;" but "He shall 
leave before Monday " expresses the determination of the speaker. 

(d) Many sentences in which will or ivould is correctly used, require 
shall or should when we introduce an adjective or an adverb to express 
the additional idea expressed by will or would. Thus, the sentence, "I 
will grant your request," expresses the idea of futurity, and also the addi- 
tional idea of the speaker's pleasure ; but when we introduce an adjective 
or an adverb to express the speaker's pleasure, will should be changed to 
shall; as, "I shall be happy to grant your request," or "I shall gladly 
grant your request." "I will be happy to grant your request," implies 
that it would require an effort for the speaker to be happy. 

371. General Rules. — All that lias been said concerning 
these four auxiliaries may be summed up in the two gen- 
eral rules : — 

372. (1) Shall or should represents the act or state as 
independent of the volition or control of what is represented 
by the subject of the verb. 

373. (2) Will or would represents the act or state as inde- 
pendent of the volition or control of the speaker, unless he is 
also represented by the subject of the verb. 

(a) The student should accustom himself to observing thoughtfully 
both his own language and that of others, for the purpose of determining 
whether the act to be expressed is to be represented as under the control 
of the speaker, of that which is represented by the subject of the verb, or 
of something different from either. 



130 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(b) The following quotation is from Richard Grant White : "The radi- 
cal signification of will (Anglo-Saxon willan) is purpose, intention, deter- 
mination ; that of shall (Anglo-Saxon sceal, ought) is obligation. J will 
do means, I purpose doing — I am determined to do. / shall do means 
radically, / ought to do ; and as a man is supposed to do what he sees he 
ought to do, / shall do came to mean, I am about doing — to be, in fact, a 
mere announcement of future action, more or less remote. But so you 
shall do means, radically, you ought to do ; and therefore, unless we mean 
to impose an obligation, or to announce an action on the part of another 
person, over whom we claim some control, shall, in speaking of the mere 
future voluntary action of another person, is inappropriate ; and we there- 
fore say you will, assuming that it is the volition of the other person to do 
thus or so. Hence, in merely announcing future action, we say, I or we 
shall, you, he, or they will ; and, in declaring purpose on our own part, or 
on the part of another, obligation, or unavoidable action, which we mean 
to control, we say, I or we will, you, he, or they shall." 

374. Examples. 

(1) He shall do it. (Speaker's determination, or promise.) 

(2) You shall do it. (Speaker's determination, or promise.) 

(3) I shall do it. (Mere futurity. ) 

(4) He will do it. (Mere futurity.) 

(5) You will do it. (Futurity, or entreaty.) 

(6) I will do it. (Determination.) 

375. Explain the force of the auxiliaries in the following: — 

(1) Will you give thanks, sweet Kate, or else shall I ? 

(2) Will it be dark before you reach the tower ? 

(3) What shall I do ? 

(4) Then wilt thou not be loath 
To leave this paradise, but shalt possess 
A Paradise within thee. — Milton. 

(5) This child I to myself will take ; 
She shall be mine, and I will make 

A lady of my own. 

The stars of midnight shall be dear 

To her ; and she shall lean her ear 

In many a secret place, 

Where rivulets dance their wayward round, 
And beauty born of murmuring sound 

Shall pass into her face. — Wordsworth. 



THE VERB. 131 

(6) Shall I, wasting in despair, 
Die because woman's fair ? 
If she love me, then believe 

I will die ere she shall grieve. — Wither. 

(7) If she hate me, then believe 
She shall die ere I will grieve. 

— Ben JonsoiVs Parody on the Above. 

376. Try each of the auxiliaries, do, be, have, may, can, 
must, might, could, would, should, shall, will, in each of the 
following blanks, and observe the difference thus made in 
the meaning of the sentence : — 

(1) You leave the room. 

(2) I believe that she pay me. 

(3) He study grammar. 

(4) Do you say that I accept it. 

(5) They let us alone. 

377. Fill the folloiving blanks with shall or will, and give 
reasons for your selection : — 

(1) I be the loser in that trade. 

(2) I be drowned ; nobody help me. 

(3) I be punished if I do wrong. 

(4) ILyou mistreat a friend you regret it. 

(5) If you mistreat me you regret it. 

(6) It probably rain to-day. 

(7) I assist you ? 

(8) If you favor me, I be obliged. 

(9) He not do it ; we not allow it. 

(10) you have this coffee, or I drink it ? 

(11) If he be in time, he accept the position. 

(12) he accompany you ? 

378. Fill the following blanks with should or would, and 

give reasons for your selection. 

(1) I not be able to repeat it correctly. 

(2) I ■ pay him to-day if he demand it. 

(3) I not think she do such a thing. 

(4) We be pleased, if you favor us. 

(5) He pay his debts, if he get his pension. 



132 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(6) We do unto others as we have others do unto us. 

(7) He was afraid that he be hurt. 

(8) He was afraid that his father commit suicide. 

PKOPEKTIES OF YEKBS. 

379. (t!) (1) Frost bites the flowers. 

(2) The flowers are bitten by frost. 
In (1) the verb bites is used, so that its subject, frost, 
stands for the doer of the act or agent. But in (2), 
the verb are bitten makes its subject, flowers, represent 
the receiver or object of the act. This distinction or prop- 
erty of verbs is called voice. 

380. (B) We have seen that every sentence expresses a 
thought and that every thought refers to a reality. We 
have now to note the manner in which the sentence 
relates the thought to the reality. This property of the 
verb, by which it enables its sentence to express the rela- 
tion of thought to reality, is mode. 

381. (1) A sentence may declare the fact of agreement 
between thought and reality; as, 

The mail arrives on the morning train. — Indicative mode. 

382. (2) A sentence may express the idea of power as 
determining the relation between thought and reality: as, 

The mail may (can, must, might, could, would, or should) arrive on 
the morning train. — Potential mode. 

383. (3) A sentence may express the idea of will as 
determining the relation between thought and reality; as, 

Bring the mail on the morning train. — Imperative mode. 

384. (4) A sentence may express, (a) doubt as to the 
agreement, or (b~) certainty as to the disagreement, between 
thought and reality; as, 

If the mail arrives on the morning train, we shall go. If the mail 



THE VERB. 138 

had arrived on the morning train, we should have gone. — Subjunctive 
mode. 

385. (C) Verbs are inflected to mark differences in 
time; as, 

I go, I have gone; I went, I had gone ; I shall go, I shall have gone. 
This property is called tense. 

386. (2)) Verbs vary their form, too, according to the 
person and number of their subjects; as, 

I go, he goes, they go. 

These properties are called person and number. 

VOICE. 

387. Voice is the property of the verb that shows whether 
the subject represents the doer or the receiver of the act. 
There are, therefore, two voices, active and passive. 

388. Active Voice is the voice in which the verb makes its 
subject represent the doer of the act ; as, " Homer wrote the 
Iliad." " She blames me." "I will cover her grave with 
flowers." " The boy runs." 

389. Passive Voice is the voice in which the verb makes its 
subject represent the receiver of the act ; as, " The Iliad was 
written by Homer." " I am blamed by her." " Her grave 
shall be covered with flowers by me." 

(«) Only verbs that express action can properly he said to have 
voice. 

(6) It is claimed by many that only transitive verbs have voice ; 

hut this position is untenable. A verb is in the active voice if its subject 
represents the actor, whether the act terminates upon an object or not. 
If it does, the verb is transitive ; if it does not, the verb is intransitive ; 
but in either case it is in the active voice. It is illogical to make voice a 
distinction concerning the termination of the act upon an object, for that 
is provided for in the classification of verbs into transitive and intransitive, 
(c) The active voice is changed to the passive by making the object 
in the active become the subject in the passive. Thus, "Anna studies 
algebra" = " Algebra is studied by Anna." "Napoleon won many 
battles' 1 ' 1 = "Many battles were won by Napoleon." 



134 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(d) When the verb is in the active voice, the word that represents 
the doer of the act is its subject, and is in the nominative case, and 
the word that represents the receiver of the act is its object, and is in the 
objective case ; as, "John struck the boy." Rut when the verb is in the 
passive voice, the word that represents the receiver of the act is its sub- 
ject, and is in the nominative case, and the word that represents the doer 
of the act is in the objective case, usually governed by the preposition by ; 
as, " The boy was struck by John.'* 

(e) Transitive verbs have the two voices, while intransitive verbs 
have only the active. An intransitive verb can never be changed to the 
passive voice, because it has no object in the active to be made the subject 
in the passive. 

(/) The elements of the passive voice are : — 

(1) some form of the verb to be, 

(2) before the perfect participle, 

(3) of a transitive verb. 

(g) It is very convenient to use the passive voice, either when 
we do not know the actor, or when we wish to conceal the actor, as, 
"The crime was committed.' 1 '' 

(h) The passive form of intransitive verbs is sometimes used by 
enallage for the active ; as, "The melancholy days are come," for "The 
melancholy days have come.'''' 

(i) The active voice is sometimes used by enallage for the pas- 
sive ; as, " The state-house is building.'" " The work is doing." 

This form of expression is now warranted by our very best writers and 
ablest critics, and no amount of protest on the part of grammarians seems 
sufficient to drive it out of the language. 

EXERCISES. 

390. (1) Tell the voice of each verb. 
(2) Change the voice and 'preserve the meaning of the 
sentence. 

(1) Sarah was astonished at the news. 

(2) William bought a book. 

(3) That poem was written by Saxe. 

(4) He will find his money. 

(5) How do you spend your time ? 

(6) I crossed the river before I saw yon. 

(7) We desire to be loved by every one. 

(8) The man was killed by a lion. 

(9) She looks as if she wanted to speak. 
(10) He seems sad. 



THE VERB. 135 



391. Mode is the property of the verb that denotes the 
manner in which thought is related to reality. 

(a) Languages differ as to the number of their modes. It is said 
that the Arabic has thirteen, the Russian seven, the Sanscrit six, and the 
Anglo-Saxon but four. Grammarians differ as to the number of modes 
that belong to a particular language ; but the number of modes, like the 
number of classes of words, is merely a matter of convenience. Mode is 
the manner of expression. There might, therefore, be as many modes as 
there are forms of expression ; but as this number would be almost infi- 
nite, such a classification would be worthless. 

(&) Mode is a grammatical term. It does not mean the manner 
of an action, or the manner of a thought ; it is the manner in which the 
verb expresses the relation between thought and reality. 

FINITE MODES. 

392. All the different manners in which a finite verb 
may express the relation between thought and reality may 
be included under the four modes explained above, — 
Indicative, Potential, Imperative, and Subjunctive. 

393. The Indicative is the mode in which the verb ex- 
presses agreement of thought with reality, as : — 

He came. He did not come. Did he come ? 
(a) The indicative mode may be used in assertions, in denials, or in 
questions. 

394. The Potential is the mode that expresses the idea 

of power as determining the relation between thought and 

reality, as : — 

I can do it. He could do it. 

395. A verb in the potential mode most commonly 

expresses : — 

(1) Power ; as, "I can go." "I could go." 

(2) Possibility ; as, " It may rain." " It might be done." 

(3) Liberty or permission ; as, " You may have it." 

(4) Inclination ; as, I would like to see him." 

(5) Duty; as, " You should pay him." 

(6) Necessity ; as, "You must leave." 

(7) Wish; as, " May you succeed. " 



136 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(a) Occasionally a verb in this mode expresses tendency, adapta- 
tion, consequence, contingence. 

(6) The potential, like the indicative, may be used interrogatively ; 
as, "Coirtd it be done f" 

(c) The potential mode, unlike the subjunctive, may always be known 
by the form of the verb, or rather by an auxiliary that is placed before 
the verb. 

(d) The auxiliaries that are the signs of the potential mode are may, 
can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

" Shall, in the sense of must, and will when it expresses volition, 
belong rather to the potential mode than to the indicative ; but to avoid 
troublesome distinctions, they are always considered as belonging to the 
indicative mode." — Kerl. 

(e) Since all the tenses of the potential mode may be used in condi- 
tional sentences, it frequently happens that a verb will have the sign of 
the subjunctive, and also the auxiliary denoting the potential; as, "If 
he would study, he might improve. 1 ' Here would study is in the 
subjunctive mode, past tense. The first sign governs the mode; the 
second, the tense. 

396. The Imperative is the mode that expresses the idea 

of will as determining the relation hetween thought and 

reality, as : — 

Leave us. Do stay with us. 

(a) "When the speaker addresses an inferior, the verb expresses a 
command; as, " Avaunt and quit my sight!" When the speaker 
addresses an equal, the verb expresses entreaty or exhortation ; as, " Do 
not leave me." When the speaker addresses a superior, the verb ex- 
presses supplication or prayer ; as, " Give us this day our daily bread." 

(6) The subject of an imperative verb is usually a second person pro- 
noun understood ; but it may be a noun or pronoun of the third person, 
or a pronoun of the first ; as, " Buin seize thee." " Somebody call my 
wife." " Hallowed be thy name." " So be it." " Proceed we then to our 
theme." " Pass we then." 

(c) The imperative is used chiefly in principal sentences ; it is used in 
subordinate sentences only in direct quotations ; as, " God said, Let there 
be light." 

397. The Subjunctive is the mode that expresses (a) doubt 
as to the agreement, or (7>) certainty as to the disagreement, 

hetween thought and reality ; as : — 



THE VERB. 137 

If he is honest, he will please me. 

If he had been honest, he would have pleased me. 

(a) The subjunctive mode is used only in subjoined (subordinate) 
sentences. 

(&) The subjunctive mode has long been, and will no doubt continue to 
be, the source of much perplexity to the pupil, the teacher, and the author. 
Earlier English had, as many other languages still have, a distinct form 
of the verb for this mode. But this distinction has almost entirely passed 
away. Many of the very best writers and speakers no longer distinguish 
the subjunctive from the indicative by the form of the verb. 

But, although the distinction in form is obsolescent, it seems far from 
right to say that the subjunctive mode will ever be obsolete. Mode never 
meant form in any language. Mode means manner of expression. The 
manner of expression may be indicated by the form of the words, by their 
relative position, or by the introduction of other words, but it always 
exists and must be recognized by the grammarian. There is no gram- 
matical distinction more important than this, and to give up the subjunctive 
mode is to give up mode altogether, and that is to acknowledge that our 
language has no grammar. The loss of a distinct form for the subjunctive 
mode is but another manifestation of what seems to be almost a deter- 
mination on the part of our language to get rid of all its inflection. But 
after all its inflection is gone, if it must go, the English will have a gram- 
mar surpassed by none ; for then the student must go back of the words 
and determine the exact nature of the thought to be expressed ; then 
English grammar will be elevated to the dignity of logic. 

(c) The subjunctive mode may usually, but not always, be known by 
being preceded by if though, lest, unless, except, -whether, that, till. 

(d) Some of these words, if and though most frequently, are often fol- 
lowed by the indicative instead of the subjunctive. This is the case when 
the subordinate sentence expresses an admission instead of a condition or 
doubt. In such cases we cannot be guided by the form of the verb, but 
must determine the mode from the thought to be expressed. Sometimes 
in isolated sentences the exact thought cannot be known, then the verb 
cannot be parsed. In the sentence, " If he is honest, he will pay you," is 
is subjunctive, because the subordinate sentence expresses a condition ; but 
in the sentence, "If he is honest, he is liable to be mistaken," is in the 
subordinate sentence is indicative, because it expresses an admission. 

(e) Were and wert still distinguish the subjunctive from the indicative 
was and wast. This is the only distinction that is always observed. 

(/) The verb is sometimes in the subjunctive mode without the usual 
sign; as, " Were I in her place, I would get my lessons." "Had he 
requested it, I should have paid him." 



138 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

IN-FINITE MODES. 

398. The Infinitive and the Participial are those modes in 
which the verb assumes the action* being, or state, instead of 
affirming it, and retains the same form regardless of the 
person and number of the subject. (See Article 52(3.) 

TENSE. 

399. Tense is that property of the verb by which it denotes 
the time of a relation. 

(a) While mode has reference to the manner of expression and not to 
that of being or of thought ; tense denotes the time of a real relation, that 
is, of action, being, or state, not the time of the thought or of the expres- 
sion. 

400. Corresponding to the three arbitrary divisions of 
time, there are the three Primary Tenses : — 

Present, I write; Past, I wrote; Future, I shall write. 

401. Each of these primary tenses has a perfect tense, 
thus making three Secondary Tenses : — 

Present Perfect, I have written ; Past Perfect, I had written; 
Future Perfect, I shall have written. 

402. The Present is the tense that denotes present time; as, 
I plow. 

403. The Present Perfect is the tense that may denote any 
period of past time that extends up to, and ends ivith, the 
present; as, I have plowed. 

404. The Past is the tense that denotes indefinitely any 
past time; as, I plowed. 

405. The Past Perfect is the tense that denotes the time of 
any past event more definitely by representing it as completed 
before the occurrence of some other past event; as, I had 
plowed the field when he planted it. 

406. The Future is the tense that denotes indefinitely any 
future time; as, I shall plow. 



THE VERB. 139 

407. The Future Perfect is the tense that denotes the time 
of any future event more definitely by representing it as 
completed before the occurrence of some other future event; 
as, I shall have plowed the field when he plants it. 

FORMS OF THE TENSES. 

408. The Present Tense has three forms: (1) The simple 
form to denote habitual action, or what is true at all 
times ; as, I write. (2) The progressive form to denote 
that the action is now going on; as, I am writing. (3) 
The emphatic form to express a thing with more emphasis ; 
as, I do write. 

(a) The progressive form always distinguishes a continuous from an 
instantaneous act. 

(6) The present tense is often used instead of the past to denote a 
single past action ; as, " He walks (walked) up to the man and knocks 
(knocked) him down." This is called the historical present. It is used 
frequently by the historian, the poet, and the orator to give animation to 
their description. 

(c) The present tense is often used instead of the future when the 
future is conceived of as present ; as, " When he has an opportunity he 
will speak about it. ' ' 

(d) The present tense is used to denote general truths or what is 
true at all times. This statement is true with regard to principal propo- 
sitions, but in subordinate propositions it does not always hold. " The 
earth is a sphere," and " The sum of the three angles of any triangle is 
equal to two right angles," are correct sentences ; but " Columbus 
believed that the earth is a sphere," and " Some old mathematician 
proved that the sum of the three angles of any triangle is equal to two 
right angles," cannot claim to be more than elegant examples of false 
syntax, notwithstanding the sanction of nearly all the grammarians and 
the warrant of nearly all our writers and speakers that claim to use the 
most faultless English. Such a sentence expresses a logical contradiction, 
and neither usage nor grammarians can long preserve a form of expression 
that implies inconsistency in thought, after its absurdity has once been 
pointed out. Columbus had no belief, or at least it is not the intention 
of the above sentence to express such a belief, about what the shape of 
the earth would be four hundred years after his death ; his belief was 
concerning its shape at the time he was believing, and that is just what 



140 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

the sentence ought to express. "That the earth is a sphere" has not 
always been regarded as a general truth, or nothing would ever have 
been said about Columbus believing it. It was just as much a general 
truth to Aristotle " that the earth was Hat "; and no one would ever say, 
"Aristotle believed that the earth is flat." It is indeed very difficult, 
even for the most learned, to know what truths are general truths. 
Most grammarians would have us say, "Plato believed that the soul is 
immortal," but they would have us say, "Plato believed that the souls 
of men became the souls of beasts." The present tense is used in the 
one case because the belief is still held ; the past tense in the other case 
because the belief is now given up. What could be more ridiculously 
absurd than such a standard for determining the tense of a verb ? Our 
boys and girls from the common schools ought to be able to speak cor- 
rectly ; but according to such a standard they would have to be familiar 
with the history of thought through all times, that they might know 
what theories had endured and what ones had been abandoned, and they 
would have to be masters in theology and metaphysics that they might 
distinguish general from contingent truths, before they could determine 
upon the tense for the verb in such subordinate sentences. Such 
matters must be determined wholly by grammatical principles, not by a 
perfect knowledge of everything. By the law of sequence of tenses a 
present in the subordinate cannot follow a past in the principal sentence, 
unless the verb in the subordinate sentence is in-finite. All such as the 
above could be correctly expressed by using the present infinitive in 
the subordinate sentence, because the time of the present infinitive is 
dependent upon that of the finite verb, and is present with reference to 
the time of the finite verb. " Columbus believed the earth to be a 
sphere" is a good sentence, and it expresses precisely the same as 
"Columbus believed that the earth icas a sphere." 

409. The Present Perfect Tense lias two forms : (1) The 
simple form to denote any period of past time extending 
up to, and ending with, the present ; as, " I have written.'" 
(2) The progressive form to denote the continuation of 
the act through the period of time referred to ; as, " I have 
been writing. " 

410. The Past Tense has three forms : (1) The simple 
form to denote indefinitely any past time; as, "I wrote.'" 
(2) The progressive form to denote continuation of an 
action through any past period not extending up to the 



THE VERB. 141 

present; as, "I was writing." (3) The emphatic form to 
denote emphasis; as, "I did write." 

411. The Past Perfect Tense has two forms : (1) The 
simple form to denote that the act was completed in a 
period of past time that extended np to, and ended with, 
some other specified past time ; as, " I had written the 
letter before he called for it." (2) The progressive form 
to denote that the action continued through the above- 
named period of past time ; as, " I had been writing the 
letter before he called for it." 

412. The Future Tense has two forms : (1) The simple 
form to denote indefinitely the time of any future event; 
as, "I shall write." (2) The progressive form to denote 
the continuation of the act through some period of future 
time; as, "I shall be writing." 

(a) It must be remembered that the past tense and the future, when 
not assisted by adverbs, denote time indefinitely ; but may be followed 
by adverbs that denote the time very definitely ; as, "I went yesterday.'''' 
"He will come to-morrow." 

413. The Future Perfect Tense has two forms : (1) The 
simple form to denote that an act will be completed in a 
period of future time that extends up to, and ends with, 
some other specified future time ; as, " I shall have written 
the letter before he calls for it." 

(a) Here calls, which is present tense, refers to future time, by being 
used in connection with the word before. 

(2) The progressive form to denote that the action is to 
continue through the above-named period of future time ; 
as, " I shall have been writing an hour when he comes." 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES IN EACH OF THE MODES, ACTIVE VOICE. 

414. The Indicative Mode has six tenses : — 

(1) Present : Simple form of the verb ; I write. 

(2) Past : Past indicative of the verb ; I wrote. 



142 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(3) Future : Shall or will before the simple form ; I shall write. 

(4) Present perfect: Have, hath, has, or hast before the perfect 

participle ; I have written. 

(5) Past ]» //< d : Had or hadst before the perfect participle ; I 

had written. 

(6) Future perfect : Shall have, or will have, before the perfect 

participle; I shall have written. 

415. The Potential Mode has four tenses : — 

(1) Present: May, can, or must before the simple form ; I 

may write. 

(2) Past: Might, could, would, or should before the simple 

form; I might write. 

(3) Present perfect : May have, can have, or wiws< have before 

the perfect participle : I may have writU n. 

(4) Past perfect: Might have, could have, "-mild have, or should 

have before the perfect participle; I might have written. 

416. The Subjunctive Mode most commonly has the 
Present, Past, or Past Perfect; but it may be used in 
any of the six tenses. The signs are the same as in the 
Indicative and Potential. 

417. The Imperative Mode has one tense : — 

(1) Present: Write. 

418. The Infinitive Mode has two tenses : — 

(1) Present: To before the simple form ; To write. 

(2) Present Perfect : To have before the perfect participle ; To 

have written. 

419. The Participial Mode has two tenses : — 

(1) Present : The form that ends in ing ; Writing. 

(2) Present Perfect: Having before phe perfect participle; Having 
written. 

420. Change each of the above verbs to the passive voice, 
preserving its tense. 



THE VERB. 143 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

421. Person and Number are the properties according to 
which the verb changes its form to snit the person and 
number of the subject; as, "I write." "He writes." 
"'They write." 

(a) Person and number belong only to finite verbs. Infinitives and 
participles never change their form for the person and number of their 
subject. 

(6) Certain verbs, whose subject is usually the pronoun it, are some- 
times called impersonal or unipersonal verbs; as, "It thunders." "It* 
hails." " It freezes.'''' But this is not a good distinction, and has been 
rejected by the best grammarians. Such verbs do often have for their 
subject nouns of different persons and numbers. 

(c) As a rule, the modification of English verbs for person and 
number is confined to the present tense. 

422. Style is sometimes named as one of the properties 
of verbs. There are four styles or forms of the verb: — 
(1) Common, I love. (2) Progressive, I am loving. 
(3) Solemn, Thou lovest. (4) Emphatic, You did love. 

DrPLECTKW OF YEEBS. 

423. Inflection is any variation in form that a verb 
may undergo to indicate voice, mode, tense, person, and 
number, and its principal parts. 

424. The Conjugation of a verb is the naming of its 
principal parts ; its Synopsis is its variation in form through 
its different voices, modes, and tenses, in a single person 
and number ; while Inflection is chiefly used to denote its 
complete variation through all its voices, modes, tenses, 
persons, and numbers. These are the meanings given to 
the terms by most grammarians, but not by all. 

Let the class study with care the inflection of the verbs 
Be and Move given on the following pages. In this way 
we may best become able to know, from the form of any 
verb, its voice, mode, tense, person, and number. 



144 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

425. A. THE VERB "BE." 

Principal Parts. 
Present, Be ; Past Indicative, Was ; Perfect Participle, Been. 

INFLECTION. 

ORDINARY AND SOLEMN STYLES. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I am. 1. We are. 

2. You are. Thou art. 2. You or ye are. 

3. He, she, or it is. 3. They are. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I was. 1. We were. 

2. You were. Thou wast. 1 2. You or ye were. 

3. He, she, or it was. 3. They were. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have been. 1. We have been. 

2. You have been. Thou hast been. 2. You or ye have been. 

3. He, she, or it has been. He, she, or it hath been. 3. They have been. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I had been. 1. We had been. 

2. You had been. Thou hadst been. 2. You or ye had been. 

3. He, she, or it had been. 3. They had been. 

1 Be in the present and Wert in the past are old forms, not used except in 
the Scriptures. 



THE VERB. 145 



FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall be. 1. We shall be. 

2. You will be. Thou wilt be. 2. You or ye will be. 

3. He, she, or it will be. 3. They will be. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall have been. 1. We shall have been. 

2. You will have been. Thou wilt have been. 2. You or ye will have been. 

3. He, she, or it will have been. 3. They will have been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. You may be. Thou mayst be. 2. You or ye may be. 

3. He, she, or it may be. 3. They may be. 



PAST TENSE. 



Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might be. 1. We might be. 

2. You might be. Thou mightst be. 2. You or ye might 1 

3. He, she, or it might be. 3. They might be. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. You may have been. Thou mayst have been. 2. You or ye may have been. 

3. He, she, or it may have been. 3. They may have been. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. You might have been. Thou mightst have been. 2. Youorye might have been. 

3. He, she, or it might have been. 3. They might have been. 



146 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I be. 1. If we be. 

2. If you be. If tbou be. 2. If you or ye be. 

3. If he, she, or it be. 3. If they be. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I were. 1. If we were. 

2. If you were. If thou wert. 2. If you or ye were. 

3. If he, she, or it were. 3. If they were. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I had been. 1. If we had been. 

2. If you had been. If thou hadst been. 2. If you or ye had been. 

3. If he, she, or it had been. 3. If they had been. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Be, or do thou be. 2. Be, or do ye or you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be. Perfect, to have been. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 
Present, Being. Perfect, Having been. 

Bemarks. — (a) By using the conjunction if, all the tenses of the 
Indicative and Potential Modes may be made conditional or subjunctive. 
We give above only the three tenses usually given. 

(b) The verb be has no progressive style, and is emphatic only in 
the Imperative. 



THE VERB. 147 

426. B. THE REGULAR TRANSITIVE VERB 
"MOVE." 

Principal Parts. 
Present, Move ; Past Indicative, Moved ; Perfect Participle, Moved. 

INFLECTION. 

OEDINAEY AND SOLEMN STYLES. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I move. 1. We move. 

2. You move. Thou movest. 2. You or ye move. 

3. He, she, or it moves. He, she, or it moveth. 3. They move. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I moved. 1. We moved. 

2. You moved. Thou movedst. 2. You or ye moved. 

3. He, she, or it moved. 3. They moved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have moved. 1. We have moved. 

2. You have moved. Thou hast moved. 2. You or ye have moved. 

3. He, she, or it has moved. 3. They have moved. 

He, she, or it hath moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I had moved. 1. We had moved. 

2. You had moved. Thou hadst moved. 2. You or ye had moved. 

3. He, she, or it had moved. 3. They had moved. 



148 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



FUTURE TENSE. 



Singular. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall move. 

2. You will move. Thou wilt move. 

3. He, she, or it will move. 



Plural. 



1. We shall move. 

2. You or ye will move. 

3. They will move. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall have moved. 1. We shall have moved. 

2. You will have moved. 2. You or ye will have moved. 

Thou wilt have moved. 

3. He, she, or it will have moved. 3. They will have moved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may move. 

2. You may move. Thou mayst move. 

3. He, she, or it may move. 



1. We may move. 

2. You or ye may move. 

3. They may move. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singula)-. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might move. 

2. You might move. Thou mightst move. 

3. He, she, or it might move. 



Plural. 

1. We might move. 

2. You or ye might move. 

3. They might move. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 



Singular. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may have moved. 

2. You may have moved. g?™^ 

3. He, she, or it may have moved. 



Plural. 



1. We may have moved. 

2. You or ye may have moved. 

3. They may have moved. 



THE VERB. 149 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have moved. 1. We might have moved. 

2. You might have moved. 2. You or ye might have moved. 

Thou mightest have moved. 

3. He, she, or it might have moved. 3. They might have moved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I move. 1. If we move. 

2. If you move. If thou move. 2. If you or ye move. 

3. If he, she, or it move. 3. If they move. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I moved. 1. If we moved. 

2. If you moved. If thou moved. 2. If you or ye moved. 

3. If he, she, or it moved. 3. If they moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I had moved. 1. If we had moved. 

2. If you had moved. If thou hadst moved. 2. If you or ye had moved. 

3. If he, she, or it had moved. 3. If they had moved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Move, or do thou move. 2. Move, or do ye or you move. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To move. Present Perfect, To have moved. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, Moving. Present Perfect, Having moved. 



150 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Stijle. 

1. I am moved. 1. We are moved. 

2. You are moved. Thou art moved. 2. You or ye are moved. 

3. He, she, or it is moved. 3. They are moved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I was moved. 1. We were moved. 

2. You were moved. Thou wast moved. 2. You or ye were moved. 

3. He, she, or it was moved. 3. They were moved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have been moved. 1. We have been moved. 

2. You have been moved. 2. You or ye have been moved. 

Thou hast been moved. 

3. He, she, or it has been moved. 3. They have been moved. 

He, she, or it hath been moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I had been moved. 1. We had been moved. 

2. You had been moved. 2. You or ye had been moved. 

Thou hadst been moved. 

3. He, she, or it had been moved. 3. They had been moved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style Solemn Style. 

1. I shall be moved. 1. We shall be moved. 

2. You will be moved. Thou wilt be moved. 2. You or ye will be moved. 

3. He, she, or it will be moved. 3. They will be moved. 



THE VERB. 151 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall have been moved. 1. We shall have been moved. 

2. Yon will have been moved. 2. You or ye will have been moved. 

Thou wilt have been moved. 

3. He, she, or it will have been 3. They will have been moved. 

moved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may be moved. 1. We may be moved. 

2. You may be moved. 2. You or ye may be moved. 

Thou mayest be moved. 

3. He, she, or it may be moved. 3. They may be moved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might be moved. 1. We might be moved. 

2. You might be moved. 2. You or ye might be moved. 

Thou mightst be moved. 

3. He, she, or it might be moved. 3. They might be moved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may have been moved. 1. We may have been moved. 

2. You may have been moved. 2. You or ye may have been moved. 

Thou mayst have been moved. 

3. He, she, or it may have been 3. They may have been moved. 

moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have been moved. 1. We might have been moved. 

2. You might have been moved. 2. You or ye might have been moved. 

Thou mightst have been moved. 

3. He, she, or it might have been 3. They might have been moved. 

moved. 



152 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM. 

The subjunctive form of the Subjunctive Mode is obsolescent, many 
of the best writers rejecting it and using only the indicative form. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I be moved. 1. If we be moved. 

2. If you be moved. If thou be moved. 2. If you or ye be moved. 

3. If he, she, or it be moved. 3. If they be moved. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I were moved. 1. If we were moved. 

2. If you were moved. 2. If you or ye were moved. 

If thou wert moved. 

3. If he, she, or it were moved. 3. If they were moved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I had been moved. 1. If we had been moved. 

2. If you had been moved. 2. If you or ye had been moved. 

If thou hadst been moved. 

3. If he, she, or it had been moved. 3. If they had been moved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be moved, or be thou moved. 2. Be moved, or be ye or you moved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be moved. Present Perfect, To have been moved. 

PARTICIPIAL MODE. 
Present, Being moved. Present Perfect, Having been moved. 



THE VERB. 153 

PROGRESSIVE STYLE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I am moving. 1. We are moving. 

2. You are moving. Thou art moving. 2. You or ye are moving. 

3. He, she, or it is moving. 3. They are moving. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I was moving. 1. We were moving. 

2. You were moving. Thou wert moving. 2. You or ye were moving. 

3. He, she, or it was moving. 3. They were moving. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I have been moving. 1. We have been moving. 

2. You have been moving. 2. You or ye have been moving 

Thou hast been moving. 

3. He, she, or it has been moving. 3. They have been moving. 

He, she, or it hath been moving. 
PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I had been moving. 1. We had been moving. 

2. You had been moving. 2. You or ye had been moving 

Thou hadst been moving. 

3. He, she, or it had been moving. 3. They had been moving. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall be moving. 1. We shall be moving. 

2. You will be moving. 2. You or ye will be moving. 

Thou wilt be moving. 

3. He, she, or it will be moving. 3. They will be moving. 



154 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I shall have been moving. 1. We shall have been moving. 

2. You will have been moving. 2. You or ye will have been moving. 

Thou wilt have been moving. 

3. He, she, or it will have been 3. They will have been moving. 

moving. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TEX-E. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may be moving. 1. We may be moving. 

2. You may be moving. 2. You or ye may be moving. 

Thou mayst be moving. 

3. He, she, or it may be moving. 3. They may be moving. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might be moving, 1. We might be moving. 

2. You might be moving. 2. You or ye might be moving. 

Thou mightst be moving. 

3. He, she, or it might be moving. 3. They might be moving. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I may have been moving. 1. We may have been moving. 

2. You may have been moving. 2. You or ye may have been moving. 

Thou mayst have been moving. 

3. He, she, or it may have been moving. 3. They may have been moving. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I might have been moving. 1. We might have been moving. 

2. You might have been moving. 2. You or ye might have been moving. 

Thou mightst have been moving. 

3. He, she, or it might have been moving. 3. They might have been moving. 



THE VERB. 155 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 1 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I be moving. 1. If we be moving. 

2. If you be moving. If thou be moving. 2. If you or ye be moving. 

3. If he, she, or it be moving. 3. If they be moving. 

PAST TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I were moving. 1. If we were moving. 

2. If you were moving. 2. If you or ye were moving. 

If thou wert moving. 

3. If he, she, or it were moving. 3. If they were moving. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I had been moving. 1. If we had been moving. 

2. If you had been moving. 2. If you or ye had been moving. 

If thou hadst been moving. 

3. If he, she, or it had been moving. 3. If they had been moving. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

2. Be moving, or do thou be moving. 2. Be moving, or do ye or you be moving. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be moving. Perfect, To have been moving. 

' PARTICIPIAL MODE. 

Present, Being moving. Perfect, Having been moving. 

1 A verb in the subjunctive mode may have any of the six tenses, but to 
save space only tenses commonly given to the subjunctive are named here, 
present, past, and past perfect. 



156 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



EMPHATIC STYLE. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 



Ordinary Style. 

1. I do move. 

2. You do move. 



Solemn Style. 



Thou dost move. 



3. He, she, or it does move. 



He, she, or it doth move. 



Plural. 

1. We do move. 

2. You or ye do move. 

3. They do move. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. I did move. 

2. You did move. Thou didst move. 

3. He, she, or it did move. 



Plural. 

1. We did move. 

2. You or ye did move. 

3. They did move. 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 



PRESENT TENSE. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



Ordinary Style. 

1. If I do move. 

2. If you do move. 



Solemn Style. 



If thou dost move. 



1. If we do move. 

2. If you or ye do move. 



3. If he, she, or it does move, if he, she, or it doth 3. If they do move. 



PAST TENSE. 



Singular. 



Ordinary Style. Solemn Style. 

1. If I did move. 

2. If you did move. If thou didst move. 

3. If he, she, or it did move. 



Plural. 

1. If we did move. 

2. If you or ye did move. 

3. If they did move. 



Singular. 
2. Do thou move. 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 



Plural. 
2. Do ye move. 



THE VERB. 157 

427. Model for Parsing Verbs. 

(1) Species. 

(2) Classes, (a) transitive or intransitive ; (6) attrib- 

utive or copulative ; (<?) regular or irregu- 
lar. (If irregular, give principal parts.) 

(3) Properties, (ct) voice, (5) mode, (c) tense, (df) per- 

son and number. 

(4) Construction (agreement with subject). 

(5) Rule. 

(a) All the uses of a verb cannot very conveniently be stated in the 
parsing, but may be made clear by the questions and explanations of the 
teacher and class. (6) See complete outline of the verb. 

428. Parsing. 

The hunter killed the bear. 
I am sick. 

They will have been invited. 
He was considered honest. 

Killed, v., trans., attrib., reg., act., ind., past, 3d, sing., to agree with 
its subj. hunter, R. XV. 

Am, v., intrans., cop., irreg., — am, was, been, — ind., pres., 1st, sing., to 
agree with its subj. I, R. XV. 

Will have been invited, v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., ind., fut. per., 
3d, plu., to agree with its subj. they, R. XV. 

Was considered, v., trans., cop., reg., pass., ind., past, 3d, sing., to 
agree with its subj. he, R. XV. 

429. Write the complete parsing of all finite verbs. 
When possible, change active verbs to passive, and expand 
each attributive verb into a copula and an attributive. 

A. (1) Plato reasons well. 

(2) Every triangle has three sides. 

(3) He has sold his farm. 

(4) You may come after your work is finished. 

(5) If I were you I would try that. 

(6) Get wisdom. 

(7) Get out of the way. 

(8) James says that the pudding tastes sour. 



158 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



(10 

en 

(12 

(is: 
(14; 
(is; 
(ie; 

(17 

(is; 

(19 

(20 
(21 
(22 
(23; 
(24 
(25; 
(26 
(27 
(28 
(29; 
(30 ; 

(31 
(32 
(33 

(34 

(35; 

(36 
y (37 

-' (38 

(39; 

(40 
(41 

B. (1 

>(2; 

(3 
(4 

(s; 

(6 

(7; 



I believe I will taste it. 

The man struck the boy. 

The ship struck on a rock. 

The city surrendered to the enemy. 

The general surrendered the fort. 

The rose smells sweet. 

He is talking nonsense. 

He may come. 

Must I bear all this ? 

I can write a letter. 

You should study. 

If I were you, I would try to do better. 

Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

If he is here, ask him to come in. 

If he was hurt, he kept it to himself. 

If I could assist you, I would willingly. 

If he would study, he might improve. 

Send me a dollar. 

Troy was, but is no more. 

He is poor now, and will always be. 

What was is no more, and what is will not be. 

Bryant is the author of Thanatopsis. 

The place was covered with flowers. 

The state-house is building. 

Thou didst create this wondrous world. 

The hunters had killed a bear. 

When I have completed this grammar, I will visit you. 

The storm may have broken down the old apple tree. 

If you should write to her, it might appear that I had requested it. 

Shall we submit to chains and slavery ? 

I would I were with him. 

He was born great. 

How do you do, George ? 

Go, wash your face, and get ready for school. 

Green be their graves. 

You ought to go. 

The lady is accomplished. 

The task was not accomplished in a day. 

I could not go because my buggy was broken. 

My buggy was broken when my horse ran away. 



(8) To the next circle, teacher, bend thy steps, 
And from the wall dismount we, for as hence 



THE VERB. 159 

I hear and understand not, so I see 
Beneath, and naught discern. 

— Cary's Dante's Inferno, line 71, canto 24. 
(9) Pass we then, 

For so Heaven's pleasure is. — Id., line 80, canto 21. 

(10) If you wish to know the truth, speak the truth. 

(11) The noble Brutus 

Hath told you that Csesar was ambitious : 

If it were so, it was a grievous fault, 

And grievously hath Csesar answered it. — Shakespeare. 

(12) The mountains look on Marathon, 

And Marathon looks on the sea ; 
And musing there an hour alone, 

I dreamed that Greece might still be free ; 
For standing on the Persian's grave, 
I could not deem myself a slave. — Byron. 

430. Outline of Verbs. 

la. Classes. 

16. According to their relation to subjects. 
lc. Finite. 
2c. In-finite. 

Id. Infinitive. ") For discussion and outline of the in-finite verbs, 
2d. Participle, J see Index. 
2b. According to their action's relation to objects, 
lc. Transitive. 
2c. Intransitive. 
36. According to their completeness of predication, 
lc. Attributive. 
2c. Copulative. 
46. According to their form, 
lc. Regular. 
2 c. Irregular. 
Id. Complete. 
2d. Redundant. 
Sd. Defective. 
56. According to their rank, 
lc. Principal. 

2c. Auxiliary : Those used in the conjugation of other verbs. 
2a. Parts. 
16. Principal. 

lc. Present Indicative. 



160 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

2c. Past indicative. 

3 c. Perfect participle. 
2b. Auxiliary. 
3a. Properties. 
lb. Voice. 

lc. Active. 

2c. Passive. 
26. Mode. 

lc. Indicative. 

2c. Potential. 

3c. Subjunctive. 

„ -" ' ..." 1 See "Discussion of the In-finite Verbs." 
5c. Participial. J 

6c. Imperative. 

3b. Tense. 

lc. Primary. 

Id. Present. 

2d. Past. 

3(7. Future. 

2c. Secondary. 

Id. Present perfect. 

2d. Past perfect. 

3d Future perfect. 

4b. Person. 

56. Number. 

SYNTAX OF VEEBS. 

431. Rule XV. — A finite verb agrees with its subject in 
person and number. 

Example. — "I plow." " He plows." " They ploio." 

(a) A verb having two or more subjects connected by and, must be 
plural ; as, " He and I are brothers." 

(6) A verb following two or more singular subjects connected by or, 
or nor, must be singular ; as, " He or she goes.'''' " Either the lawyer or 
the doctor was mistaken." 

(c) A verb following two or more plural subjects connected by or, or 
nor, must be plural; as, " We or they are wrong." "The men or the 
women were mistaken." 

(d) A verb cannot have two or more nominatives differing in number 
or in person and joined by or or nor. When two or more of such nomina- 
tives stand in a sentence before one verb, the verb agrees with the one 
nearest to it, and a verb is understood with each of the others. 



THE VERB. 161 

(1) Put the plural subject next to the verb; as, "Either the teacher 
or his pupils were to blame." 

(2) Let the first person he next to the verb, the third person next in 
order, and the second person farthest from the verb ; as, " You, he, or I 
am mistaken." "You or she is mistaken." But it is always better in 
such cases to rewrite the sentence, giving each nominative its own verb, 
if it can be done without making the sentence sound too formal ; as, 
" Either the teacher was to blame, or his pupils were." " You are mis- 
taken, or she is." 

(e) An appositive modifying the subject expresses the subordinate idea, 
and does not affect the form of the verb ; as, " I, your master, command 
you;" or, "Your master, I, commands you." 

(/) A verb having for its subject a collective noun, conveying the 
idea of unity, must be singular; as, "The army was divided." "This 
jury says he is guilty, but the other jury does not agree with this one." 
" The regiment is made up of two thousand men." 

(g) A verb having for its subject a collective noun, conveying the 
idea of plurality, must be plural ; as, "The whole army are happy." 
"The jury are not agreed." "The regiment were laughing and talk- 
ing." "Your club wear blue uniforms, but our club do not dress in 
uniform." 

(1) It is a matter of importance to the pupil that he be able to dis- 
tinguish the two ideas conveyed by the collective noun, — that of unity, 
and that of plurality. 

(2) It is many times impossible to determine whether the collective 
noun expresses the idea of unity or that of plurality, since it depends, in 
most instances, upon the particular conception the speaker took of the 
collection of objects. In the plural sense, the collective noun has been 
compared to a rope having its strands or threads untwisted; in the singular, 
to the same in a twisted state. We may say, as a general rule, that when 
the term denotes, separation, distribution, or diversity, in regard to place, 
time, action, or state, the verb should be plural ; otherwise singular. Say, 
" The public are respectfully invited." " My family are in the country " 
(different places). "My family is in the country" (the same place). 
"The committee was large." "The committee were not agreed." 
"Congress has adjourned." "A number of boats have passed up the 
river this spring, and the number is increasing daily. ' ' The last example 
shows the distinction in its greatest nicety. 

(h) The pronoun you, whether singular or plural, should always have 
a plural verb ; as, " You (one or many) were mistaken." 

(0 An adjunct, or prepositional phrase, joined to the subject must 
not be allowed to affect the form of the verb. Do not say, "The deriva- 



162 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

tion of such words are uncertain;" "The examination of his friends 
shoio him to be a bankrupt." 

( j) Be careful to use the right form of the verb when the sentence is 
introduced by such words as hence, or there. Do not say, " Hence arises 
eight parts of speech ; " " There was differences between them," etc. 

432. Review of Verbs. 

(1) Define a verb. Illustrate. (2) How do verbs resemble prep- 
ositions, conjunctions, conjunctive adverbs, and relative pronouns ? 
(3) What is meant by a verb phrase ? Illustrate. (-4) What can you 
say about the verb with reference to every predicate. (5) Classify 
verbs on five different bases. (6) Define and illustrate : (a) finite, 
in-finite verbs ; (6) transitive, intransitive ; (c) attributive, copula- 
tive ; (d) regular, irregular ; (e) principal, auxiliary. (7) Criticise 
these definitions : A transitive verb is one that requires an object ; an 
intransitive verb is one that does not require an object. (8) Is a 
verb always transitive if its action terminates on an object ? Illustrate. 
(9) What may complete a copulative verb ? Illustrate. (10) Name and 
illustrate the classes of copulas. (11) What is meant by the principal 
parts of verbs ? Illustrate. (12) Define and illustrate strong and weak 
verbs. (13) Name ten irregular verbs that are often misused, give the 
principal parts of each, use each of the principal parts in a sentence. 
(14) Give general directions for using the auxiliaries shall, will, should, 
and would. (15) Illustrate a correct and also an incorrect use of each. 
(16) What properties belong to the verb ? (17) Define and illustrate 
each. (18) When is a verb in the active voice ? Illustrate. (19) When 
is a verb in the passive voice ? Illustrate. (20) Tell how an active verb 
may be changed to the passive voice. Illustrate. (21) Can an intransi- 
tive verb be put into the passive voice ? Why ? Illustrate. (22) Name, 
define, and illustrate each of the modes. (23) Explain fully the use of the 
subjunctive mode. (24) What can you say about the relation between 
form of the verb and mode ? (25) Name two general divisions of tense. 
(26) Name and define each of the three primary tenses and each of the 
secondary tenses ; illustrate each with a regular and an irregular verb, in 
the active and the passive voice. (27) What is meant by person and 
number of the verb ? (28) What is meant by conjugation, synopsis, 
inflection ? 

433. Supply suitable verbs in the following blanks. See 
that the verbs are in the present tense, so that their agree- 
ment with their subjects may be noted : — 



THE VERB. 163 

(1) Either he or I to blame. 

(2) You or Thomas mistaken. 

(3) Either the teacher or the pupils to blame. 

(4) Which of these two books best ? 

(5) The condition of the roads very bad. 

(6) What sounds each of the vowels ? 

(7) Hence the following advantages. 

(8) Neither the boy nor his brother very industrious. 

(9) Which of the soldiers received pensions ? 

(10) Everybody very kind to me. 

(11) I knew that you my father's friend. 

434. Write five sentences in 'which the verbs have each 
tivo or more subjects joined by and. 

435. Write five sentences in which each verb follows two or 
more singular subjects joined by or or nor. 

436. Write five sentences, each containing but one verb, fol- 
loiving two or more nominatives, differing in number, and 
joined by or or nor. 

437. Write five sentences, each containing but one verb, fol- 
lowing two or more nominatives, differing in person, and 
joined by or or nor. 

438. Write sentences in which the collective nouns, school, 
assembly, band (of musicians'), crowd, pair, family, are used 
as subjects of singular verbs. 

439. Write sentences in which they are used as subjects of 
plural verbs. 



164 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



THE ADVERB. 

440. 1. John writes correctly. 

2. He is exceedingly careful. 

3. He does tolerably ivell. 

4. I am not an artist. 

441. In (1) writes expresses an attribute, and correctly 
expresses an attribute of this attribute. In (2) exceedingly 
expresses an attribute of the attribute expressed by careful. 
In (3) tolerably expresses an attribute of the attribute ex- 
pressed by well. In (4) am expresses the connection be- 
tween the ideas expressed by Zand artist, and not expresses 
an attribute of the connection. All such as the words ital- 
icized in the four sentences above are adverbs. 

442. An Adverb is the 'part of speech that expresses an 
attribute of an attribute or of a connection. Or. — 

443. An Adverb is a word that usually modifies a verb, 
adjective, or other adverb. 

444. As the name adverb suggests, the principal use of 
this part of speech is to modify the verb ; but it may 
modify : — 

(1) A verb ; as, "He talks intelligently." 

(2) An adjective ; as, " She is very lazy.' 1 

(3) An adverb ; as, " He works well enough." 

(4) A prepositional phrase ; as, " Has the Lord spoken only by 
Moses? " 

(«) Sometimes the adverb is used independently; as, "Did he 
come?" " Yes." The adverbs yes and no are often said to modify 
entire propositions ; but the truth is, that they are equivalent to entire 
propositions. To the question, " Did he come?" there may be two 
affirmative answers: "He did come," and "Yes." Sometimes both 
answers are given to one question ; as, " Yes, he did come;" but it is 
simply repeating the answer for emphasis. Yes and no are responsive 
adverbs used independently. Fes is of affirmation ; no, of negation. 



THE ADVERB. 165 

(6) The adverb frequently modifies a word understood; as, "When 
will he come again ? " " Sometime.' 1 '' Here, sometime modifies the verb 
will come, understood. 

CLASSES OF ADVERBS AS TO USE. 

445. Most adverbs, like those given above, have but a 
single use — a modifying use. They are simple adverbs. 

446. A Simple Adverb is one having only a modifying use. 

447. But in " The tree lies where it fell," and " He carne 
when he was wanted," where and when are adverbs, because 
they limit their verbs so as to express the ideas of place 
and time. And in addition to this modifying use, each 
has another, — it joins its clause to the preceding verb, 
which the clause limits. That is, in addition to its ad- 
verbial use it has a conjunctive use. Such words are 
therefore called conjunctive adverbs. 

448. A Conjunctive Adverb is one that modifies some word 
in a subordinate clause, which it joins to some part of a prin- 
cipal sentence. 

SUB-CLASSES OF SIMPLE ADVERBS. 

449. Every simple adverb is either responsive or inter- 
rogative. Most adverbs are responsive ; as : — 

He walks rapidly. 
He stands there. 
He came recently. 

450. A few adverbs, such as how, where, ivhen, and why, 
when used to ask or imply questions, are interrogative 
adverbs ; as : — 

How does he walk ? I know hoio he walks. 

Where does he stand ? I know where he stands. 
Wlien did he come ? I know when he came. 

451. In the three sentences to the left, how, where, and 
tvhen ask direct questions, and are therefore called direct 
interrogative adverbs ; in the three to the right, they indi- 



166 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

rectly imply questions, and are therefore called indirect 
interrogative adverbs. 

(a) The direct interrogative adverb may be used in either a prin- 
cipal or a subordinate sentence ; as : — 

When did he come ? When do you think he came ? 

The indirect interrogative adverb is always found in a subordinate 
sentence. 

(6) The clause in which an indirect interrogative adverb is found is 
always substantive. It may be : — 

(1) Subject of a finite verb ; as, "-Where is he ? is the question." 

(2) Complement of a finite copula; as, The question is, "Where 
is he?" 

(3) In apposition ; as, The question, " Where is he ? is answered." 

(4) Object of a transitive verb ; as, " I ask, Where is he?" 

(5) Object of a preposition; as, " We talked about where he is." 

(6) Subject of an infinitive ; as, " We believe Where is he ? to have 

been answered." 

(7) Complement of an infinitive copula ; as, " We thought the 

question to be, Where is he?" 
(c) We must not make the mistake of calling indirect interrogative 
adverbs connectives. A substantive clause needs no connective. No 
interrogative word, direct or indirect, is ever a connective. 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

452. Ordinarily a conjunctive adverb joins an adverbial 
clause to a verb, adjective, or adverb ; as : — 

You walk as I direct. 

You will find him happy as a king. 

You are as tall as he. 

453. These we may call Ordinary Conjunctive Adverbs. 

454. Sometimes a conjunctive adverb joins an adjective 
clause to a substantive ; as : — 

This is the place where the accident occurred. 
It was a time when all were serious. 

455. Such words have the same connective force as 
relative pronouns ; they are therefore called Relative 
Conjunctive Adverbs. 



THE ADVERB. 167 

(a) A conjunctive adverb is usually equivalent to two prepositional 
phrases ; as, " Come when you are wanted " — " Come atthe time at which 
you are wanted." "It lies where you left it" = "It lies in the place in 
which you left it." " She is as good as I " = " She is good to the degree to 
which I am good." In such sentences as the last the conjunctive adverb is 
equivalent to but one phrase, the force of the first phrase being expressed 
by the first as. Relative conjunctive adverbs also are equivalent to but 
one phrase ; as, " The house where it occurred " = " The house in which it 
occurred." 

(&) The teacher will find it a very profitable exercise to have the class 
rewrite sentences containing conjunctive adverbs, expanding them into 
their equivalent phrase or phrases. They may thus see clearly the exact 
idea expressed by every conjunctive adverb. 

(c) It is not accurate to say that a conjunctive adverb connects two 
sentences. It always joins a subordinate sentence to the part of the prin- 
cipal modified by the subordinate. Nor should we say a conjunctive 
adverb modifies a word in each sentence. It always modifies a voord in 
its subordinate sentence, and the entire subordinate sentence modifies some 
word in the principal. Thus in, 

You should eat where you work, 

■where is the conjunctive adverb ; it limits work, and the entire clause, 
where you work, limits the verb should eat. 

456. Distinguish the uses of where in : — 

(1) Where is Paul ? — Direct Interrogative Adverb. 

(2) I know where Paul is, — Indirect Interrogative 

Adverb. 

(3) I am happy where Paul is, — Ordinary Conjunc- 

tive Adverb. 

(4) I like the place where Paul is, — Relative Con- 

junctive Adverb. 

457. Remember : — 

(1) The direct interrogative adverb directly asks a 

question and may be in either a principal or 
a subordinate sentence. 

(2) The indirect interrogative adverb only implies 

a question and is ahvays in a substantive 
clause. 



168 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(3) The ordinary conjunctive adverb always limits 

some word in an adverbial clause, which it 
joins to some part of the principal sentence. 

(4) The relative conjunctive adverb always limits 

some word in an adjective clause, which it 
joins to a substantive in the principal sen- 
tence. 

458. Mark the ambiguity in such sentences as, " I know 
when I am on my feet," and the disposition of when corre- 
sponding to each signification. 

CLASSES OP ADVEKBS AS TO MEANING. 

459. Adverbs of time; expressing the idea of time, either 
when, how long, or how often ; as : — 

Ever, never, always, continually, constantly, endlessly, forever, inces- 
santly, everlastingly, evermore, aye, then, meanwhile, meantime, when, 
whenever, as, while, subsequently, after, afterwards, otherwhile, before, 
late, early, again, oftentimes, sometimes, occasionally, rarely, frequently, 
now and then, weekly, daily, monthly, yearly, newly, anew, now, to- 
day, nowadays, yet, as yet, yesterday, heretofore, recently, lately, of 
late, formerly, already, just now, anciently, as soon as, long since, long 
ago, erewhile, till now, hereafter, soon, to-morrow, ere long, by and by, 
instantly, momentarily, directly, forthwith, not yet, anon. 

460. Adverbs of place ; those suggesting the idea of place; 

as : — 

Here, there, yonder, everywhere, where, somewhere, anywhere, no- 
where, wherever, wheresoever, herein, therein, hereabouts, thereabouts, 
whereabouts, hereby, thereby, aground, on high, whence, hence, else- 
where, off, afar, about, beneath, above, before, behind, under, within, 
without, whither, hither, up, down, backwards, forwards, hitherwards, 
aground, nigh. 

461. Adverbs of manner; those answering or asking the 
question, how : — 

So, thus, well, ill, wisely, foolishly, justly, how. anyhow, somehow, 
however, howsoever, otherwise, least, likewise, as, extremely, at length, 



THE ADVERB. 169 

lengthwise, suitably, considerably, happily, extensively, together, sepa- 
rately, accordingly, creditably, necessarily, really, certainly, foot by foot, 
so so, wholly, clearly, namely, silently, feelingly, surprisingly, mournfully, 
merely, proportionally, verily. 

462. Adverbs of degree ; those suggesting the idea of how 
much, how little, or to what extent : — 

Much, more, most, little, less, least, far, by far, farther, very, too, 
mostly, entirely, actually, in general, totally, highly, perfectly, all, alto- 
gether, quite, constantly, extravagantly, immeasurably, immensely, pain- 
lessly, infinitely, clear, nearly, well r nigh, partly, partially, intense y, 
exclusively, scantily, precisely, enough, exactly, even, ever so, just as, 
sufficiently, somewhat, at all, simply, brightly, particularly, especially, in 
particular, also, besides, still, likewise, moreover, furthermore. 

463. Adverbs of cause, purpose, or reason ; those answering 
the question, why: — 

Why, wherefore, hence, therefore, then, thence, consequently, whereby, 
hereby, thereby. 

464. Adverbs of doubt ; as : — 

Perhaps, probably, perchance, possibly, doubtfully, doubtless, certainly. 

465. Adverbs of affirmation or negation : — 

Yes, no, not, yea, aye, nay. 

(a) The classification cannot be complete, because it would be impos- 
sible to name all the different ideas that may be expressed by the adverb. 
In parsing, the pupil should, if possible, refer the adverb to one of the 
classes named ; but if he finds one that cannot be referred to any of these 
classes, he must make a new class to suit it. 

(5) Adverbs of doubt are usually given as subdivisions of adverbs of 
maimer, but this is a wrong classification. No one of these adverbs of 
doubt answers to a question concerning the manner of an action. If the 
question, How did he go? were asked, it could not be answered by the 
word perhaps. It must be kept in mind that the adverb must always be 
named according to the idea that it expresses. 

(c) Adverbs that denote the manner of the expression rather than the 
maimer of an action, are called modal adverbs ; as, truly, verily, etc. 
Thus in the sentence, " Truly he came," truly does not refer to the 
coming, but to the saying. Such adverbs may, for convenience, be parsed 



170 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

as modifying the verb in the sentence in which they are found, but in 
reality they modify the verb say, understood. 

(d) An adverb used to ask a question is called an interrogative 
adverb. All others may be regarded as responsive. 

(e) Adverbs are often used in connection with the verb to express 
time more definitely; as, I shall go 'presently . 

(/) A combination of words used as a single adverb may be parsed as 
an adverbial phrase; as, by and by, day and night, so so, again and 
again, at random, in rain, at least, on high, in fine, at present, atlast, out 
and out, through and through, no more, man by man. But when the 
combination does not have the force of a single adverb, the words should be 
parsed separately ; as, " He signed it then and there.'''' Then expresses the 
idea of time, and there of place ; they cannot therefore be parsed together. 

(g) A few adverbs are used merely to introduce a sentence. They 
should then be parsed as introductory expletives. They have no 
modifying force in the sentence; as, " There were fifty men present." 
" Wliy, did you see Jones, yesterday?" "Weill what did you think 
of it?" 

COMPARISON. 

466. Adverbs, like adjectives, have one property, — com- 
parison; as, loud, louder, loudest ; tuell, better, best; brightly^ 
more brightly, most brightly. The kinds, methods, and 
degrees are the same as those of the adjective. 

(a) The rule for the comparative and superlative of adjectives will 
apply to the comparative and superlative of adverbs. 

467. Parsing of Adverbs. 

1. Species. 3. Comparison. 5. Construction. 

2. Classes. 4. Degree. 6. Rule. 
Work diligently while the sun shines. 

We walked to the kennel ivhere the puppies were playing. 

Diligently, adv., of manner — diligently, more diligently, 
most diligently, — pos. degree, and limits work, R. XI. 

While, adv., conj., of time ; it limits shines and joins its 
clause, while the sun shines, to work, R. XI. 

Where, adv., relative, of place ; it limits were playing, 
and joins its clause, ivhere the puppies were playing, to 
kennel, R. XL 



THE ADVERB. 171 

(a) The pupil should always name the phrase or phrases to which the 
conjunctive adverb is equivalent. When a conjunctive adverb joins its 
clause to a noun or pronoun it is equivalent to but one phrase, and 
should be called a relative conjunctive adverb. 

468. Parse nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs orally 
by abridged model. Write the parsing of the adverb. 

She sang sweetly. 

The wind moaned mournfully over her grave. 

When shall I see you again ? Sometime. 

They lived very happily. 

We were agreeably disappointed. 

Do you expect them to-morrow ? Yes. 

She is continually changing her mind. 

It cannot be true. 

Perhaps I shall go. 

Doubtless it is true. 

Time is ever flying. 

When will the house be covered ? To-morrow. 

How often do you lecture ? Never. 

We see, therefore we believe. 

How well can she play ? 

How well she can play ! 

How shall we act ? Wisely. 

How is Rath ? Sick. 

They burst their bonds asunder. 

Perhaps there were fifty men fighting bravely. 

The old house stands right over the way. 

They work day and night. 

She stood silent as she heard the sad news. 

Thoughts do often lie too deep for tears. 

The stick was a trifle too weak to bear well his weight. 

Be it ever so humble, there is no place like home. 

Never shall we see his like again. 

I shall meet my friend when the boat arrives. 

The lilies grow where the ground is moist. 

The patriot answers whenever his country calls. 

Whither I go ye cannot come. 

Ere the clay dawns he will die. "> ,„ ^ 

tt xi * ti ** W See Preposition.) 

He came before I left. J v J 

It is uncertain where Homer was born. 

Newton discovered why an apple falls. 



172 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(26) Logic teaches how we think. 

(27) Make hay while the sun shines. 

(28) As we labor so shall we be rewarded. 

(29) As is the boy so will be the man. 

(30) When you have finished your task, then you may rest. 

(31) Mr. Brown, how do you do ? 

(32) Can you see where he sits ? 

(33) Did you hear when he came ? 

(34) The season when the buds open is spring. 

(35) The question, when shall we three meet again, was asked and 
answered by the witches. 

(30) Can you guess when I disturb you ? 

469. Outline of Adverbs. 

la. Division. 2b. As to meaning. 

16. As to use. lc. Time, 

lc. Simple. 2c. Place. 

Id. Limiting. 3c. Cause, 

le. Interrogative. 4c. Manner. 

2e. Responsive. 5c. Degree. 

2d. Independent. 6c. Doubt. 

2c. Conjunctive. 7c. Affirmation. 

Id. Ordinary. 8c. Negation. 

2d. Relative. 2a. Comparison : (See Adjective.) 



SYNTAX 01 ADVERBS. 

470. Adverbs usually limit verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

(a) Not always, for sometimes an adverb limits a prepositional phrase. 
and sometimes it may be used independently. 

(?>) Two negatives make an affirmative; as, "I will not do it no 
more." "I have not had no bread to-day." 

(c) The word following an intransitive verb should be an adjective 
or an adverb, according as we wish to refer to the condition of Ihr- agt nt, 
or the manner of the action expressed by the verb. Thus, if I wish to 
refer to the condition of the man, I say, " He looks strange ; " but if I 
wish to describe the manner in which he looked, 1 say, "lie looked 
strangely at me." And to refer to my condition at the time of my 
arrival I say, "I arrived safe," not safely. 



THE ADVERB. 173 

(d) In poetry an adjective is often used instead of an adverb for the 
sake of the metre ; as, "The swallow sings sweet from her nest on the 
wall." 

471. All liabilities to error in the use of the adverb may 
be reduced to three heads : Choice, Form, and Position. 

472. (1) Always use the adverb that expresses, or most 
nearly expresses, the meaning intended. 

(2) Always use the best adverbial form of the ivord. 

(3) Always give the adverb the position in the sentence 
that adds most to the correctness, clearness, and elegance of 
the expression. 

473. Discuss the folloiving sentences: — 

(1) Do not walk so fast ; you will soon become weary. 

(2) She is less beautiful than he supposed. 

(3) Ail your neighbors were not invited. 

(4) How he got it again, I scarcely knew. 

(5) There cannot be found one man that is willing to undertake it. 

(6) The San Jacinto River flows through the southern part of Texas. 

(7) Whether you are willing or not, you will have to pay the debt. 

(8) Speak slow and distinctly. 

(9) She behaved very sillily. 

(10) He was running very rapidly, but suddenly stopped. 

(11) Two young ladies came to the party nearly dressed alike. 

(12) I am only tolerable well. 

(13) Suddenly there came a tapping, as of some one gently rapping, 
rapping at my chamber door. 

(14) The boy acted nobler than his brother. 

(15) The lady dresses remarkably elegant. 

(16) The fox is an exceeding artful animal. 

(17) He is exceeding clever. 

(18) You have been wrong informed on this subject. 

(19) Nothing further was said about the matter. 

(20) Come quick ! you walk too slow. 

(21) We remained a week at Galveston, and proceeded thence to 
Indianola. 

(22) No one is nobler or loftier than he. 

(23) We went back to" the cave. 

(24) Such cloaks were in fashion about five years since. 

(25) I received the gift with pleasure, but I shall now gladlier resign it. 



174 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(26) If you have only learned to spend money extravagantly at col- 
lege, you may stay at home. 

(27) Corn should be generally planted in April. 

(28) Having lost once $1000 by speculation, he will never have another 
chance. 

(29) That was a remarkably fine speech. 

(30) Having not considered the measures proposed, he failed of success. 

(31) We do those things frequently which we repent of afterward. 

(32) The flowers smell sweetly. 

(33) At this place the mountains are considerably high and steep. 
(31) I went by the house in a buggy. 

474. Review of Adverbs. 

(1) Define an adverb. (2) Illustrate what an adverb may modify. 
(3) Name, define and illustrate the classes of adverbs as to use. (4) Dis- 
tinguish : direct interrogative, indirect interrogative, ordinary conjunctive, 
and relative conjunctive, adverb. (5) In what kind of a sentence is each 
used ? (6) State definitely the modifying and the connective use of 
each. (7) How may the clause containing an indirect interrogative 
adverb be used ? Illustrate with lohen. (8) Name, define, and illustrate 
the classes of adverbs as to meaning. (9) What are the chief errors in 
the use of adverbs ? 



THE PREPOSITION. 175 



THE PREPOSITION. 

475. He spoke to the boys. He spoke to them. 
He came with Alta. We came with her. 

476. In each sentence above the two italicized words 
express ideas that are related, and the little word in black 
type expresses the relation and governs the case of the sub- 
stantive that follows it. Such words are called prepositions. 

477. A Preposition is the part of speech that expresses 
relation without affirming it and governs a substantive called 
its object. 

(a) The italicized pronouns in the two sentences to the right show 
more clearly the governing power of prepositions. 

(5) The verb is the only part of speech that expresses relation by 
affirming it. Besides the preposition, relative pronouns, conjunctive 
adverbs, and conjunctions express relation without affirming it ; but of 
these, only the preposition can govern a substantive. 

I. CEASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

478. Prepositions are classified, according to their form, 
into : — 

(1) Simple. — Single prepositions ; as, in, at, on, by, for, etc. 

(2) Compound. — Consisting of two or more prepositions ; as, from 
above, from under, etc. 

(3) Complex. — Any combination of different parts of speech used as 
a single preposition ; as, to the extent of, to the distance of, etc. 

II. TERMS OF RELATION. 

479. Since prepositions are relation words and relation 
implies two objects, there are always two terms of the rela- 
tion expressed by a preposition. These terms are called 
object and antecedent. The object is the substantive gov- 
erned by the preposition, and the antecedent is the term to 
which the preposition joins the substantive. 



176 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

480. The object is always a substantive. It may be : — 

(1) A noun : " We went to the river.' 1 ' 1 

(2) A pronoun : "He sat by me." 

(3) An adverb : In such expressions as, since then, before then, till now, 
iohere, iorever, between mow and then. (See Whitney's Grammar, p. 144.) 

(4) An adjective: "On high, of old, in vain, for good." 

(5) An infinitive : " She did nothing but [to] cry." 

(6) A participle : " She never thinks of going to school." 

(7) A clause : " We have been talking about who deserves the prize." 
" The labor of clearing land depends upon how much timber there is on it." 
" Reason and justice have been jurymen since before Noah wan a sailor.'''' 
"We started before the sun set' 1 '' = " We started before sunset." " We 
supported him after he teas elected" = " We supported him after his 
election." " 41e has not been seen since he arrived " = " He has not been 
seen since his arrival." "We shall wait till morning comes" = " We 
shall wait till morning." " Pie will remain until Christmas comes" = " He 
will remain until Christmas." "She may die ere clay dawns" = "She 
may die ere the dawn of day." 

(a) The words after, before, since, till, until, and ere, when followed 
by subordinate clauses, are unmistakably prepositions ; to parse them as 
conjunctive adverbs is inexcusable. That they are prepositions the 
following considerations will clearly establish : — 

First, the clause following one of these words can always be abridged 
into a substantive that is certainly the object of this word, leaving the 
meaning of the original sentence unimpaired. The clause introduced by 
when, ivhere, or any other word ever known to be a conjunctive adverb 
cannot be so abridged. Thus, " We shall start after dinner is over" — 
" We shall start after dinner; " and in the latter sentence, which means 
precisely the same as the former, after is universally conceded to be a 
preposition. But, "We shall start when dinner is over" is not equiva- 
lent to "We shall start when dinner," for the italicized group of words 
means nothing and is therefore not a sentence. 

Second, to dispose of any one of these words as a conjunctive adverb 
gives its sentence a meaning exactly the opposite of the one intended. 
For example, in " The man died after he made his will," if after is a con- 
junctive adverb, it must modify made so as to express the idea of time. 
That is, he made his will after. After what ? There is but one other 
event mentioned ; that is, his death. 

No, it is better to call these words prepositions governing the following 
clauses. And why not ? 

(o) The object of a preposition sometimes seems to be a phrase, as 
in : — 



THE PREPOSITION. 177 

He has lived there since before the war. 
A spirit came from above the clouds. 
A stream runs from under the rocks. 

But it is much more convenient to call since before, from above, from 
under, and like combinations, compound prepositions, governing the 
following substantives. 

481. The antecedent of a preposition is the word the 
phrase limits. It may be : — 

(1) A verb : " The book lies on the table." 

(2) A noun : "We saw the city in flames." 

(3) A pronoun : " Woe be unto you of little faith." 

(4) An adjective : " All reverence to the heads hoary with age." 
(-5) An adverb : " I have read the book sufficiently for my purpose." 
(0) An interjection : " Alas for maiden, alas for judge." 

482. The prepositions most commonly used are given 
in the following — 

List. — A, aboard, about, above, according to, across, after, against, 
along, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around or round, as to, at, 
athwart, before, behind, below, beneath, beside or besides, between, be- 
twixt, beyond, but, by, concerning, down, during, except, save, for, 
from, in, into, notwithstanding, of, on, out of, since, till or until, 
through, throughout, to, toward or towards, under, up, with, within, 
without. 

(«) Most of the remaining prepositions are either poetic, antique, tech- 
nical, or comic. 

(b) A is now rarely used as a preposition except before a participial 
noun ; as, We went a fishing. 

(c) O/is used nearly as much as all the other prepositions together. 

483. Parsing of Prepositions. 

To parse a preposition is to state the part of speech to 
which it belongs, and name the object and antecedent 
between which it shows the relation. 

484. It is generally very easy to determine the object 
of a preposition, and often difficult to find the antecedent ; 
but the correct answer to two questions will always give 
both. (1) Put the interrogative what after the preposi- 
tion to find the object ; then (2) put the interrogative 



178 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

what before the phrase to find antecedent. For example : 
" Frantically, they dashed that rapid torrent through." 
(1) Through what? Through the torrent. (2) What 
through the torrent ? Dashed through the torrent. 

485. Model. 

1. Preposition. 2. Relation. 3. Rule. 

He came from the city. 

From, prep., and shows the relation between city and 
came, R. XIII. 

A. (1) He went with us. 

(2) It fell through the air to the ground. 

(3) Put it on the table or into your pocket. 

(4) They stayed until night under shelter. 

(5) He went from St. Louis, across the plains, to California. 

(6) Light moves in straight lines, and in all directions from the 
point of emission. 

B. (1) Night, sable goddess ! from her ebon throne, 

In rayless majesty, now stretches forth 

Her leaden sceptre o'er a slumbering world. — Young. 

(2) All came but Mary. 

(3) To him who in the love of nature holds 
Communion with her visible forms, she speaks 
A various language. — Bryant. 

(4) Into the mouth of hell rode the Six Hundred. 

(5) I left before he came. 

(6) You have changed since I saw you. 

(7) I shall go after he leaves. 

(8) She will wait till you come. 

(9) They will leave you ere you are aware. 

(10) You must stay until the train arrives. 

(11) The eulogium pronounced on the character of the State of South 
Carolina, by the honorable gentleman, for her revolutionary and other 
merits, meets my hearty concurrence. — Webster. 

C. (1) From peak to peak, the rattling crags among, 

Leaps the live thunder. — Byron. 

(2) Day unto day uttereth speech, and night unto night showeth 
knowledge. — Psalm 19. 

(3) He came from Rome to Paris, in the company of many eminent 
men, and passed with them through many cities. 



THE PREPOSITION. 179 

(4) Ah ! who can tell the triumphs of the mind, 

By truth illumined, and by taste refined. — Bogers. 

(5) . Or that choice plant, so grateful to the nose, 

Which in I know not what far country grows. — Churchill. 

(6) He crossed the plains to search in the canons for gold. 

(7) After the battle of Waterloo, Napoleon was banished to St. 
Helena, in the South Atlantic Ocean. 

(8) O'er bog or steep, through strait, rough, dense, or rare, 
With head, hands, wings, or feet, pursues his way. — Milton. 

(9) At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 

Should tremble at his power. 
In dreams, through camp and court, he bore 
The trophies of a conqueror. — Halleck. 
(10) He crawled from under the ruins. 

486. Outline of Prepositions. 



la. Kinds. 


5c. An Adverb. 


15. Simple. 


6c. An Interjection. 


25. Compound. 


26. Object. 


36. Complex. 


lc. A Noun. 


2a. Terms of Relation. 


2c. A Pronoun. 


15. Antecedent. 


3c. An Adverb. 


lc. A Verb. 


4c. An Adjective. 


2c. A Noun. 


5c. An Infinitive. 


3c. A Pronoun. 


6 c. A Participle. 


4c. An Adjective. 


lc. A Clause. 



SYNTAX OP PREPOSITIONS. 

487. Rule XIII. — A preposition sJiows the relation of 
its object to the word the phrase limits. 

(a) When the object of a preposition is omitted it usually becomes an 
adverb, but sometimes an adjective : " It flew up, around, and down 
again." "It overlooked the plains below.' 1 ' 1 

(5) One preposition may have several antecedents; as, " They wash, 
iron, cook, eat, and sleep in the same room." 

(c) One antecedent may have several prepositions ; as, "A govern- 
ment of the people, by the people, and for the people." 

{d) One preposition may have several objects; as, " A positive law 
against all fraud, falsehood, and violence." 



180 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(e) One object may have several prepositions; as, » lie ran up, down, 
and across the hall." "He approved of, and voted /;»/•, the measure." 
Better, il He approved of the measure and voted lor it." 

488. Use of Prepositions. — All errors in the use of prepo- 
sitions 'may he reduced to: — 

I. Choice. II. Position. III. Insertion or Omission. 
IV. Repetition. 

I. CHOICE. 

489. Great care should betaken always to select the preposition that 
expresses precisely the relation intended. In doubtful cases, the diction- 
ary should be consulted for the object, the antecedent, and the preposition 

itself. 

490. Exercises to he corrected and then parsed: — 

(1) The sultry evening was followed with a rain. 

(2) He died with a fever (means both died). 

(3) The soil is adapted for wheat. 

(4) Congress consists in a Senate and House of Representatives. 

(5) Of what does happiness consist ? 

(6) Religion and Christianity may differ widely with each other. 

(7) I differ from you in opinion. 

(8) Charles dropped his dollar in the creek. 

(9) The persecutions of the Quakers were barbarous. 

(10) He went out of a fine morning. 

(11) I have been to New Orleans. 

(12) He divided his estate between his son, daughter, and nephew. 

II. POSITION. 

491. (1) Phrases should be so placed in the sentence as to make it 
correct, clear, and elegant. 

(2) As its name implies, the preposition should generally be placed 
immediately before its object. 

492. Exercises to he corrected and then parsed: — 

(1) We saw a man digging a well with a Roman QOie. 

(2) ^Ye heard a lecture on teaching geography at 10 o'clock. 

(3) These verses were written by a young man who has long since 
lain in his grave for amusement. 

(4) Wanted. — A young man to take care of horses of a religious 
turn of mind. 



THE PREPOSITION. 181 

(5) He went to see his friends on horseback. 

(6) Whom did he give it to ? 

II. INSERTION AND OMISSION. . 

% 

493. (1) Prepositions should not be inserted so as to destroy the 
proper connection of the different parts of the sentence. 

(2) Prepositions should not be omitted when required by the sense. 

494. Exercises to be corrected and then parsed : — 

(1) It was in vain to remonstrate. 

(2) It was to your brother to whom I was indebted. 

(3) What use is it to me ? 

(4) She could not refrain shedding tears. 

(5) San Francisco is the other side the Rocky Mountains. 

(6) I admit of what you say. 

(7) Many talented men have deserted from the party. 

(8) California is not more noted for its gold than bears. 

(9) He was right in that which you blame him. 

(10) Ignorance is the mother of fear as well as admiration. 

IV. REPETITION. 

495. (1) A preposition having several objects must be used before 
one only, or each, of them. 

(2) To repeat the preposition before each object renders the sentence 
sometimes inelegant, sometimes forcible. 

496. Exercises to be corrected and then parsed : — 

(1) He is a man of sagacity, experience, and of honesty. 

(2) By industry, by economy, and by good luck he accumulated a 
fortune. 

497. Review of Prepositions. 

(1) Define the preposition. (2) How does a preposition resemble 
a verb ? (3) How is h unlike a verb ? (4) What other relation words 
can you name ? (5) What distinguishes the preposition from all of 
them ? (6) Name and illustrate the classes of prepositions. (7) What 
may the object of a preposition be ? What may the antecedent 
be ? Illustrate. (8) Name the prepositions that may govern clauses. 

(9) One preposition may have several antecedents ; one antecedent may 
have several prepositions ; one preposition may have several objects ; one 
object may have several prepositions. Illustrate with original sentences. 

(10) Classify and illustrate the errors common in the use of prepositions. 



182 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 

498. 1. Men and boys should be industrious. 

2. We should be gentle with children and with horses. 

3. He endeavored to stand and to say something. 

4. The rain descended and the floods came. 

5. Words are weak but deeds are mighty. 

6. The children came because they wanted to see us. 

499. In each sentence above it may be seen that the 
two italicized parts express ideas that are related, and that 
the word in black type expresses this relation and joins 
the two parts. Such words are conjunctions. 

500. A Conjunction is the part of speech whose only office 
is to express relation. Or, a Conjunction is the part of speech 
whose only office is to connect sentences or parts of sentences. 

501. In the first five sentences above, the conjunctions 
connect coordinate parts ; in the last sentence, the part 
on the right explains, or is subordinate to, the part on the 
left. 

(a) The conjunction is not the only connective. Relative pronouns 
and conjunctive adverbs are connectives, but they have also a modifying 
use ; the conjunction has no modifying force in the sentence. 

(6) The conjunction, like the preposition, is a relation word, because 
it always indicates the relation that the parts connected bear to each 
other. 

(c) The verb also is a relation word ; it is always a connective. But 
the verb, unlike both the preposition and the conjunction, not only 
expresses the relation but affirms it if it is a finite verb, or assumes it if 
it is an infinitive or a participle. 

(eZ) The conjunction is like the preposition and unlike the verb in 
being unable to affirm or assume the relation ; but it is unlike the prepo- 
sition in having no governing power over substantives. 

(e) From all these notes, the definition of a conjunction will clearly 
appear, — that part of speech whose only office is to express relation. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 183 

502. A conjunction may join : — 

(1) Two independent sentences; as, " Young heads are giddy, 
and young hearts are warm." 

(2) Two dependent sentences; as, "The child is not happy, 
because its father is a drunkard and its mother is dead.' 1 '' 

(3) Two words; as, " Mary and Alice are kind and obedient.'''' 

(4) Two phrases; as, " The boy ran out of the house and into the 
corn-field.' 1 ' 1 "We should try to learn all ive can and to remember all 
we learn.'''' 

(5) A subordinate sentence and a part of a principal; as, " We 
succeed if we try." 1 " 1 

CLASSES OP CONJUNCTIONS. 

503. Conjunctions may be most conveniently classified 
upon two different bases, — use and meaning. 

504. As to use, conjunctions are either coordinate or 
subordinate. 

505. A Coordinate Conjunction is one that joins elements 
having the same grammatical construction. 

506. A Subordinate Conjunction is one that joins a subordi- 
nate sentence to some part of the principal. 

(a) The one thing of importance is to be able to determine in every 
instance whether the conjunction is coordinate or subordinate. 

(5) A coordinate conjunction may join two words, two phrases, or 
two sentences ; as, " We saw Samuel and Peter.'''' " She went to Phila- 
delphia and to Brooklyn.''' 1 " Mary rode but Philip walked.''"' 

(c) A subordinate conjunction always joins a subordinate sentence to 
a part of the principal ; as, " He came to the front because he wanted 
to hear." " He ivas silent for he knew .not what to say." " She was so 
slow that we missed the train." 

507. As to meaning, conjunctions are : — 

508. Copulative, denoting addition; as, and, also, likewise. 

"John will work and I shall help him." 

509. Adversative, or Disjunctive, denoting opposition; as, 
but, nevertheless, whereas. 

"We went but they did not go." 



18-4 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

510. Correlative, those used in pairs ; as, both . . . and, 
either . . . or, neither . . . nor, whether . . . or. 

"Both the child and its mother were there." 

511. Alternative, those used to denote one of two alterna- 
tives ; as, or, nor. 

"George or his brother will help you." 

512. Causal, one introducing a causal clause ; as, because, 

since, for. 

" He came because he wanted to see me." 

513. Conditional, one introducing a conditional clause; 

as, if. 

"I shall pay him if he insists upon it." 

(a) And, that, for, and some other conjunctions are often used merely 
as introductory words, without any connecting power ; as, "And it came 
to pass." " That he did it is doubted." "I believe that he did it." 
" For what shall it profit a man?" Such words should be parsed as 
introductory expletives, according to Rule XVIII. Or, if it is thought 
preferable, and and for may sometimes be parsed as joining what they 
introduce to some preceding sentence or word. 

(b) For convenience, such correlative words as either . . . or, neither 
. . . nor, both . . . and, are commonly parsed as correlative conjunctions ; 
but in reality the words either, neither, and both, are only expletives, 
having no force in the sentence but to introduce the parts that are joined 
by the following or, nor, and and. 

(c) Conjunctions introducing clauses that express cause, conclusion, . 
or effect are sometimes called illative conjunctions; as, "Learn of me, 
for I am meek and lowly in heart." "I think, therefore I am." '* He 
was honest, hence he was trusted." 

(d) In studying or teaching the conjunction, keep in mind that 
the two things absolutely indispensable are : (1) What does it connect ? 
(2) Is it coordinate or subordinate ? 

514. Parsing of Conjunctions. 

1. Species. 3. Sub-class. 5. Rule. 

2. Class. 4. Construction. 

Coordinate. 

(1) Oxygen and hydrogen are gases. (Words.} 

(2) He strove with all his powers and to a noble end. (Phrases.) 



THE CONJUNCTION. 185 

(3) You may walk into the garden but you must not pluck the flowers. 

{Sentences.) 

(4) Plato was both a philosopher and a poet. {Correlative.) 

Subordinate. 

(5) His friends trusted him because he was honorable. 

(6) Although he tries he always fails. 

(1) And, conj., cop. ; it connects the two nouns, oxygen and hydro- 
gen, R. XII. 

(2) And, conj., coor., cop. ; it connects the two phrases, with all his 
powers and to a noble end, R. XII. 

(3) But, conj., coor., disj.; it connects the two sentences, you may 
walk into the garden and you must not pluck the flowers, R. XII. 

(•1) Both . . . and are conj., coor., correl., both introduces, and and 
connects, the two noun phrases, a 'philosopher and a poet, R. XII. 

Or better, 

Both . . . and are correlative words ; both is an expletive intro- 
ducing, and is a coor. cop. conjunction connecting the two noun phrases 
a philosopher and a poet, R. XII. and Article 513 {b). 

(5) Because, conj., subor., causal ; it connects the clause, he was hon- 
orable, to the verb, trusted, R. XII. 

(6) Although, conj., subor., disj.; it connects the clause, he tries, to 
the verb, fails, R. XII. 

(«) Some prefer, and with reason, to consider such sentences as the 
last compound, and call although a coordinate conjunction. 

(b) In parsing, require the parts connected to be definitely classified 
as is done above. That is, say they are nouns, phrases, verbs, etc. 

515. Selections for Parsing. 

A. (1) Carthage and Rome were rival powers. 

(2) She came, but he remained at home. 

(3) We all must work or starve. 

(4) I will work if he will pay me. 

(5) He gave me both advice and money. 

(6) Out of the yard and up the street he rushed. 

(7) We must' either hasten our march or return by night. 

(8) Though he slay me, yet will I trust him. 

B. (1) And now let us proceed. 

(2) That you were mistaken is evident. 

(3) Aristides was both just and wise. 

(4) Not truth, but falsehood, fears the open day. 



186 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(5) Scrooge went to bed again, and thought it over and over and 

over. — Dickens. 

(6) Men must work and women must weep, 

Though storms be hidden and waters deep. — Kingsley. 

(7) For none made sweeter melody 

Than did the poor blind boy. — Wordsworth. 

(8) Whether the thing was green or blue. 

(9) Men must be taught as if you taught them not. 

(10) Gold is more valuable but less useful than iron. 

(11) He treated me as if he believed that I was a thief. 

(12) He looks as if tired. 

(13) Johnson went to Congress, while his children went to the peni- 

tentiary and to the gallows. 

(14) I believe him, because he is truthful. 

(15) He was silent, for he knew not what to say. 

516. Outline of Conjunctions. 
la. Classes as to Use. 

16. Coordinate : One that joins elements having the same grammat- 
ical construction. 

2b. Subordinate : One that joins a limiting clause to some part of a 
principal sentence. 
2a. Classes as to meaning. 

15. Copulative: Denoting addition (and, also, likewise). 

2b. Adversative : Denoting opposition (but, nevertheless, whereas). 

36. Correlative : Used in pairs (both . . . and ; either ... or. 

46. Alternative : Used to assert one or the other of two alternatives ; 
as, " John or James will go." 

56. Causal: One introducing a causal clause; as, "I shall not go, 
because he went." 

66. Conditioned: One introducing a conditional clause; as, "He 
came that he might learn." 

SYNTAX OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

517. Rule XII. — Conjunctions connect ivords, phrases, 
and sentences. 

518. A coordinate conjunction may connect — 

(1) Two independent sentences : as, "John went and Mary came." 

(2) Two dependent sentences ; as, "I shall go if he invites me and 
they come after me." 



THE CONJUNCTION. 187 

(3) Two prepositional phrases ; as, " Up the mountain and through 
the glen, he takes his silent way." 

(4) Two infinitive phrases ; as, " He tries to be honest, and to be 
industrious.' 1 '' 

(5) Two participial phrases ; as, "I saw him standing on the bank 
and looking into the water.''' 1 

(6) Two nouns or pronouns, either with or without modifiers ; as, 
" He and I went." " The old man and his little girl came." 

(7) Two verbs, with or without modifiers; as, "He went and re- 
turned.' 1 '' "He bought a book and read it through.' 1 '' 

(8) Two adjectives ; as, " The man is wise and great." 

(9) Two adverbs ; as, " Slowly and silently came the night." 

519. A subordinate conjunction always joins a subordinate 
sentence to some part of the principal. It may join its 
subordinate sentence to — 

(1) A verb ; as, " He learns because he studies diligently.'''' 

(2) An adjective; as, "His conduct was such that he was dis- 
missed.' 1 '' 

(3) An adverb ; as, " He was so slow that they all left him." 

(a) It has "been stated hy some authors that the parts connected by 
coordinate conjunctions must he of the same class ; hut this rule is too 
strict for writers and speakers to follow. A prepositional phrase is often 
joined to an adjective or an adverb ; as, "I cannot but think its appli- 
cation somewhat constrained and out of place.''' 1 The rule should be: 
The parts connected must be in the same grammatical construction; thus 
if one part is an adjective, the other part must either be an adjective, or 
some expression used as an adjective ; and if one part is a noun, the object 
of a certain verb, the other part must be used as the object of the same 
verb. Generally, verbs joined by coordinate connectives should have the 
same mode and. tense. 

(b) The subordinate conjunction although is sometimes said to join a 
participle to the noun it modifies ; but the ellipsis must always be supplied ; 
as, "The man, although [he was] running rapidly, played the piece 
perfectly." 

(c) The word that is not a connective when it introduces a substantive 
clause ; subjective, objective, predicative, or appositive element ; as, 
" That the stars are suns, is the belief of astronomers." "Astronomers 
believe that the stars are suns." " The astronomer's belief is. that the stars 
are suns." "The belief that the stars are suns is held by astronomers." 



188 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(d) The conjunction than sometimes follows the words else, other, and 
rutin')', but it nearly always joins a subordinate sentence to an adjective or 
an adverb in the comparative degree; as, "He is better than I am." 
"He walks faster than she does." 

(e) When than introduces a subordinate sentence, limiting two 
words, care should be taken that they both be in the comparative degree ; 
as, "He is older and wiser than I." Do not say, "He is as old and 
wiser than I." 

(/) It is claimed by good grammarians that the coordinate conjunc- 
tion always joins two sentences. 

(7/) The word or has two uses : (1) To come between two alterna- 
tives ; as, "A king or queen always rules in England ; " (2) to precede 
an explanatory term; as, "A sovereign, or supreme governor, always 
rules in England." 

(h) When a series of words in the same construction is used, the 
connective is placed only before the last ; as, " We saw John, James, 
Mary, and Peter." 

(2) The conjunction and may give to the parts connected a collective 
signification ; as, "Paul and Peter (together) weigh six hundred pounds." 
Or it may give them a distributive signification ; as, "Paul and Peter 
(each) weigh coal." As sentences the two have the same disposition. 
Each is a partial compound sentence. Or, as some prefer to call it, a 
simple sentence with a compound subject. 

0") Neither and either should always introduce parts that are con- 
nected by the corresponding nor and or ; as, " Neither he nor his friends 
were present." " It neither improves the understanding, nor delights the 
heart." " He neither improves his farm nor his mind," should be, " He 
improves neither his farm nor his mind." Many good writers are entirely 
too careless with their correlatives ; but the student of composition must 
remember that whatever excellence such writers possess must not be 
attributed to their carelessness. 

520. Parse all the conjunctions. Reivrite incorrect sen- 
tences, making the necessary changes. 

(1) I shall visit him this summer, because he desires it. 

(2) That we may fully understand the subject, let us consider the 
following propositions. 

(3) Neither flattery nor threats could move him. 

(4) Our judgments should neither be hasty nor unjust. 

(5) John the Baptist came, eating neither bread nor drinking wine. 
(0) Tones are different, both from emphasis and pauses. 

(7) He is taller, but not so old as his brother. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 189 

(8) He was as eloquent, and perhaps even more eloquent than 
Webster. 

(9) It is as good, or better, than mine. 

(10) We may, and ought to do good to others. 

(11) This is consistent neither with logic, nor history. 

(12) There is no one so wise but he can learn something more. 

(13) I do not know whether he is in Boston, or New York. 

(14) Bead distinctly, that you may be understood. 

(15) He is honest, but his judgment is poor. 

(16) If you are going, then he will go. 

(17) No one will dispute the fact that Edison is a great inventor. 

(18) The children play in the yard and in the street. 

(19) I remained that I might have company, but they have gone. 

(20) I. shall not go unless I am invited. 

(21) Though he were dead, yet shall he live. 

521. Review of Conjunctions. 

(1) Define a conjunction. Illustrate. (2) What other connective 
words can you name ? Illustrate, showing the connective force of 
each. (3) How does the conjunction differ from all other connective 
words ? (4) What parts may a conjunction join ? (5) Name, define, and 
illustrate the two classes of conjunctions as to use. (6) Illustrate what 
parts each may connect. (7) Discuss (a) Correlative conjunctions, 
(6) Introductory conjunctions. (8) What do you consider of most im- 
portance in the study of the conjunction ? 



190 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



THE INTERJECTION. 

522. " 0, pshaw, he is too emotional, but alas, I am like 
him ! " 

The italicized words above express isolated feelings 
that come in between ideas. They are called interjec- 
tions. 

523. An Interjection is an exclamatory word used to ex- 
press an isolated feeling that comes in between thoughts or 
ideas. 

(a) The word interjection means throicn between. That is, the emo- 
tion is thrown in between thoughts or ideas, and the word that expresses 
it is thrown in between sentences or parts of sentences. 

(&) Interjections have no classes and no properties. 

(c) To parse an interjection, simply name its part of speech, referring 
to Rule XVII. 

SYNTAX Or INTERJECTIONS. 

524. Rule XVII. — An interjection does not depend 
for grammatical construction upon any other word. 

525. Interjections might be classified according to the 
nature of the feelings they express, into : — 

(1) Joy : eigh, hey, io. 

(2) Sorrow : oh, ah, hoo, alas, alack, lackaday, wellaclay, or welaway. 

(3) Wonder : heigh, ha, strange, indeed. 

(4) Wish, earnest, or address : (generally followed by a noun). 

(5) Praise : ivell-done, good, bravo. 

(6) Surprise with disapproval : whew, hoity-toity, hoida, zounds, what. 

(7) Pain, or fear : oh, ooh, ah, eh, dear. 

(8) Contempt : fudge, pugh, i^oh, pshaw, jiish, tush, tut. humph. 

(9) Aversion : foh, faugh, fie, fy, foy. 

(10) Expulsion : out, off, shoo, ichew, begone, avaunt, aroynt. 

(11) Desire for attention : ho, soho, what-ho, hollo, holla hallo, halloo, 
boy, ahoy. 



THE INTERJECTION. 191 

(12) Exultation : ah, aha, huzza, hey, heyday, hurrah. 

(13) Mirth : ha-ha-ha, he-he-he, te-hee-he. 

(14) Salutation : welcome, hail, all-hail. 

(15) Call for attention : ho, lo, la, law, look, see, behold, hark. 

(16) Call for silence : hush, hist, whist, 'st, aw, mum. 

(17) Dread, or horror : oh, ah, hah, what. 

(18) Languor, or weariness : heigh-ho, heigh-ho-hum. 

(19) Desire for stop : hold, soft, avast, whoa. 

(20) Feeling caused by the thought of parting : farewell, adieu, 
good by, good day, good night. 

(21) Feeling that follows a discovery: oho, aha, ay ay. 

(22) Feeling that prompts interrogation : eh ? ha f hey ? 

(a) Do not use interjections in the absence of corresponding emotions. 
Do not allow the course of thought to be too frequently interrupted by 
emotions. 



192 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

526. In other places it has been insisted that the proper 
way to teach the subject of grammar is not to neglect 
either practical or technical grammar, but to teach them 
both together. Every lesson should contain some of the 
principles of grammar, and also their application to lan- 
guage. Here I intend to give some lessons in technical 
grammar. I shall try to present, so that it will be clear 
to young teachers, what is regarded as perhaps the most 
difficult subject connected with this branch ; that is, Infini- 
tives and Participles. 

527. Grammar, the Most Difficult Study. — I think perhaps 
it is safe to say that there is no other branch taught in 
the common schools which is so much misconceived by the 
teacher as well as the pupils. Many teachers seem to have 
the idea that in grammar one may hold almost any opin- 
ion, or indeed no opinion, and still be right. A few years 
ago a superintendent said to me, " I despise grammar ; 
there is no certainty about it — one book will say one thing 
and another book will contradict it ; this, of course, con- 
fuses the class and the teacher never knows what to do." 
Well, this is indeed a sad state of affairs, if it is a reality, 
and I am sure that to a very great extent it is. It is true 
that one book will say one thing and another book another. 
It is true, also, that this will confuse the pupils, and, pity 
though it is, it is true also that in a majority of cases the 
teacher himself does not know what to do. But the ques- 
tion remains — Is this the fault of the subject, of the books, 
or of the teachers ? I hold that grammar is a science as 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 193 

exact as any taught in our schools, with the possible excep- 
tion of mathematics ; and that in almost every case, if the 
teacher understands his business, he may know what to do, 
regardless of the fact that the books differ. Well, how 
may he know this, is the question of importance to all that 
are in the condition of our superintendent. Let me tell 
you. First, let it be understood that language is not con- 
structed according to anybody's text-book on grammar. 
On the contrary, everybody's text-book on grammar should 
have been constructed according to the language. This is 
true in all science. The earth was not formed according 
to anybody's text-book on geology, but all the text-books 
on geology have been written to explain the construction 
of the earth, as any one that examines it may find it to be. 
Now, suppose one geology says one thing and another 
another, are the pupils to be confused and the teacher not 
to know what to do ? No ; on the contrary, they are to 
go to the earth itself and find for themselves its construc- 
tion. Suppose they find it to be different from the state- 
ments of both their books or all their books on geology, 
which is right, the earth or the text-books ? It is not 
necessary to answer this question. Now, this same scien- 
tific method of investigating a subject may be applied in 
teaching grammar as successfully as in any other branch. 
The teacher, however, must be sufficiently familiar with 
language and literature in general to know what is and 
what is not good usage ; then, if he finds text-books dif- 
fering with reference to the use of airy part of speech, all 
he has to do is to step to the blackboard and write there a 
sentence containing that part of speech and let the class 
see for themselves which of the text-books agree with the 
language. Suppose that both the text-books or all the 
text-books have it one way and the language another, 
which is right ? You may be sure it is the language. But 



194 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

do not understand me to say that the teacher should dis- 
pense with the text-book. This, I think, would be very 
foolish ; for any one that has written a text-book on a sub- 
ject will most likely have a better understanding of it than 
the ordinary teacher ; but what I mean is this, that by 
continually comparing the statements of the text-book 
with the usages of our best writers and speakers, the 
teacher will soon be able to determine what text-book is 
most nearly in accordance with the language, and that is 
the one that he should adopt for his class. Teachers gen- 
erally may not be aware of the fact, but it is a fact never- 
theless, that most books on geology have been written 
upon other books on geology rather than upon the earth. 
This is true with text-books in general, and particularly 
is it true with text-books on English grammar. Ninety- 
nine one-hundredths of them have been written upon 
other grammars rather than upon the English sentence. 
But the ideal text-book on this subject will be the one 
that has for its subject-matter the English sentence, as 
spoken and written by great masters in literature. So 
far as construction or use of words is concerned, the Eng- 
lish language is now pretty well settled, and there is no 
necessity for very much disagreement in our text-books. 
Nor is there need for confusion for the pupil or perplexity 
on the part of the teacher, or superintendent, if he will 
keep the scientific method in view, that is, verify the 
statement of the text-book by referring to usage in the 
language, always remembering that, when there is a differ- 
ence, the best text-book must give up in favor of language. 
Now let us apply this scientific method to the investigation 
of infinitives and participles. 

528. A Knowledge of Other Languages not Necessary to an 
Understanding of English. — Let me make another prelim- 
inary statement just here. Some text-books and teachers 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 195 

are responsible for the misunderstanding, that for the 
pupil to understand English infinitives and participles he 
must understand also the infinitives and participles as 
they were used in the Greek, the Latin, the Hebrew, etc. 
Nothing could be more absurd. English is what it is, and 
we have it before us, so that any one willing to look at it 
may see what it is, and also he may know that it will be 
what it is, regardless of the nature of those languages 
from which our English words have been taken, and after 
which much of our English syntax has been modelled. 
Even some of the new text-books on grammar just now 
appearing use the Latin names for the cases, for the tenses 
of verbs, etc. The teacher should throw such books 
away ; they are as much behind the times as would be a 
treatise on anthropology that would classify men by 
giving them the names formerly applied to our four- 
footed ancestors. This practice of continually referring 
to foreign languages in teaching English is in most cases 
an artifice on the part of the teacher or writer to conceal 
his ignorance of English itself. Suppose that the foreign 
language agrees in its syntax with the English, we must 
understand the English syntax before we can note the 
agreement ; and after we understand it, what light will it 
throw on our English to go back to the foreign language? 
Suppose, on the other hand, the English syntax differs 
from the foreign ; then, again, a knowledge of the foreign 
will throw no light on the syntax of the English. So that 
the thing for the teacher of English to learn is that he is 
teaching English, not Latin, Greek, German, or French, or 
anything else. 

529. What Part of Speech. — Let us determine to what 
part of speech the infinitive and the participle belong. 
Or must they be made to constitute a new part of speech? 
Here, it is true, the authorities are not agreed; but let us 



196 GBAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

follow our scientific method, and we shall be able to deter- 
mine their part of speech. Let us follow the method the 
scientist would adopt if he should come upon an animal 
that he was not altogether familiar with. What must he 
do? Evidently he must class it with some of the animals 
he is already familiar with, or else he must make a new 
class for it. If it differs materially from all others, 1 1 *_- 
must do the latter ; if not, the former. Now, suppose lie 
decides to class it with the animals he knows ; here the 
question arises, Into which class shall he put it ? Into the 
class that it most nearly resembles. 

530. The Scientific Method. — We must do the same with 
infinitives and participles. But scientists themselves could 
differ as to the proper class for this new animal ; some 
might declare it to be a wolf, others a fox, and still others 
possibly a bear. Now what is to be done ? Bring In t/,r 
animal itself and let it testify. Suppose that it be found to 
agree in every essential characteristic and every phase of 
its nature with bears, and suppose that, notwithstanding 
this, a committee of scientists high in authority persist in 
calling it a Avolf ; what are we to do ? I think all sensible 
people would take the side of the bear. 

531. The Final Test. — Now this is about our condition with 
respect to infinitives and participles. Most grammarians, 
especially those that have been considered high authority, 
have declared that infinitives and participles are not verbs. 
Some, it is true, have claimed that they should be classed . 
under that part of speech. What is the final test? This 
is it : Be sure that we understand the nature of the verb, and 
then make a careful examination of infinitives and participles 
as they are found in the language of the best English speakers 
and writers, and note whether they are found to agree with 
verbs or to differ from than. 

532. Finite Verbs do not always Assert. — Now let us pro- 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 197 

ceecl to make the comparison. One of the strongest objec- 
tions that has ever been urged against calling infinitives 
and participles verbs is, that they only assume action, being, 
or state, while it is the office of verbs to assert; but this 
objection we may easily see is not well founded, for, while 
it is true that infinitives and participles always assume, it 
is true also that finite verbs do not always assert. For 
instance, take the following sentences : " When you come 
we will talk it over ; " "I do not believe that he is a thief." 
It may easily be seen that the verbs in the subordinate 
sentences, come and is, do not make assertions, they only 
assume; yet there never has been a grammarian that 
for this or any other reason would deny that they are 
verbs. In none of our subordinate sentences can the 
finite verbs properly be said to assert, they only assume; 
still we all regard them as verbs. 

533. They have the Classes of Verbs — Attributive and Copu- 
lative. — It is easy to observe, also, that the different classes 
commonly attributed to verbs apply as well to infinitives 
and participles. First, we say that all verbs are either 
attributive or copulative, as, in the sentence, " The man 
farms" we say the finite verb farms is attributive be- 
cause it does not require any other word to express the 
attribute it asserts of its subject ; and in the sentences, 
"The man is a farmer," and "The man is well," we say 
the verbs are copulative because they only couple to their 
subjects other words that express attributes. In the fol- 
lowing sentences we may see the same distinction with 
reference to infinitives. For instance, in " We want the 
man to farm" to farm is attributive, and in "We want 
the man to be a farmer," and " We want the man to be 
well," the infinitives are clearly copulative. It is seen 
from these sentences, also, that the infinitive copula, like 
the finite copula, may be completed by a predicate noun or 



198 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

a predicate adjective. Show that participles have the same 
uses. 

534. Transitive and Intransitive. — We say that all finite 
verbs are either transitive or intransitive. Thus, in the 
sentences, "John ploivs the field,' 1 and "The boy runs" 
the verb plow is transitive, because it represents the 
action of a doer as terminating upon a receiver ; and 
runs is intransitive because it represents the action as 
pertaining wholly to the doer. The same is true of the 
following infinitives : " We want John to plow the field," 
and "We want the boy to run." To plow is clearly 
transitive, everybody would parse the noun field as its 
object ; and to run is as clearly intransitive. So far as 
I have yet been able to learn, no one has ever attributed 
the classes, Copulative and Attributive, Transitive and In- 
transitive, to any other part of speech than verbs. Show 
that participles may be used like " to plow" and "to run." 

535. Regular and Irregular. — The same is true with the 
classes, Regular and Irregular. Every regular verb, like 
plow, has its infinitive and its participle, to plow, and 
plowing ; also every irregular verb like see has its corre- 
sponding infinitive and participle, to see, and seeing. 

536. May express Action, Being, or State. — We must ob- 
serve, too, that infinitives and participles, like the finite 
verb, may express action, as, to run, running; being, as, 
to be, being, or state, as, to stand, standing; although as 
previously stated they can only assume, not assert, this 
action, being, or state. 

537. May be modified by Adverbial Elements. — It may be 
seen also that infinitives and participles, like finite verbs, 
may be modified by adverbial elements ; as, " Boys like 
to lie in the shade ivhen the sun is hot." " Having come 
from the country, he enjoyed the city." 

538. They have the Properties of Verbs — Voice. — We find 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 199 

also that infinitives and participles have the same prop- 
erties, voice, mode, and tense, that are always given to 
finite verbs. For illustration, take the sentences, " John 
killed a snake," and " A snake was killed by John." We 
say that the verbs have voice because they are used so that 
in one sentence the verb makes its subject represent the^ 
doer, and in the other the receiver. Now, for the same 
reason, we may say that the infinitives in the following 
sentences have voice : " We want John to kill the snake," 
and "We want the snake to be killed by John." "The 
boy killing the snake is my brother," and "The snake being 
killed by the boy is a copperhead." 

539. Mode. — It is clear, also, that infinitives and parti- 
ciples have mode. Indeed, no other verbs can lay such 
undisputed claim to mode, as may be seen from the follow- 
ing sentences : " Go " (imperative), " I go " (indicative), 
"I may go" (potential), "If I may go" (subjunctive). 
The mode of the finite verb go depends upon its relation 
to the other words in a sentence ; but the infinitive and 
participle never leave us in doubt as to their mode. As 
soon as we see them, we know that their peculiar manner 
of expression is by assuming, not by asserting. Thus, in 
the sentences, " I want the man to go," and " The man 
having gone we did not see him," to go and having gone 
show at once, without considering other words in the sen- 
tence, that they assume the action. 

540. Tense. — Now, do infinitives and participles have 
tense ? First, let us find out why finite verbs have tense. 
Finite verbs have tense because they can be used so as to 
mark different periods of time. But infinitives and parti- 
ciples can mark different periods of time. Thus, in the 
sentence, " I believe the man to be honest," the thought is, 
that the man is honest now ; and in the sentence, "I be- 
lieve the man to have been honest," the thought is, that he 



200 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

was honest some time in the past. So it is clear that 
these words can mark two distinct periods in time; they, 
therefore, have the two tenses called Present and Present 
Perfect. 

541. Time expressed by the Tenses. — A very important 
and very practical question connected with the tenses of 
infinitives and participles is this : " What is the time ex- 
pressed by each of the tenses ? " The only statement that 
is commonly found in the grammars is, that " the time ex- 
pressed by infinitives and participles depends upon that 
expressed by the finite verb in the same sentence." 

In the first place, this statement is not always true. 
The time expressed by the infinitive and the participle 
often has no reference whatever to that of the finite verb 
in the same sentence, as may be seen from the following : — 

The horse to be sold, was once valuable. 

The horse to be sold, is now valuable. 

The horse to be sold, will sometime be valuable. 

The man having the work clone, was a congressman. 

The man having the work clone, is a congressman. 

The man having the work clone, will be a congressman. 

In the next place, the statement is not sufficiently defi- 
nite to give any information even when it is true. AY hen 
the time of the infinitive and participle does depend upon 
that of the finite verb, the following rules will be found to 
hold without exception. First. — The time of the present 
infinitive and present participle is present with reference to 
that of the finite verb. Thus : — 

He came (past) to the front to hoar (past) the speaker. 

He comes (now) to the front to hear (now) the speaker. 

He will come (future) to the front to hear (future) the speaker. 

He came (past) stumbling (past). 

He comes (present) stumbling (present). 

He vill come (future) stumbling (future). 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 201 

From the sentences given above Ave see that the present 
infinitive and present participle may express past time, 
present time, or future time, but the rule is also seen to be 
true, " that their time is present with reference to that of 
the finite verb." Second. — The time expressed by the per- 
fect infinitive and perfect participle is always previous to 
that of the finite verb in the same sentence. 

For illustration : — 

He believes (now) me to have been mistaken (past). 

He believed (yesterday) me to have been mistaken (the clay before). 

He will believe (future) me to have been mistaken (previously). 

The same may be observed to be true of participles: — 

Having prepared his lesson (previously) he recites it (now). 
Having prepared his lesson (previously) he recited it (yesterday). 
Having prepared his lesson (previously) he will recite it (future). 

It will be seen that the perfect infinitive and participle, 
like the present, may express either present, past, or future 
time, but as the rule says, " The time expressed by the 
perfect infinitive and perfect participle is previous to that 
of the finite verb." 

542, The Subject of an Infinitive. — I have already shown 
that infinitives and participles, as well as finite verbs, may, 
when transitive, govern objects, as in the following sen- 
tences : "I want him to learn grammar.'" " They want 
me to believe him." " Having seen him we came home." 
I now wish to explain that they have subjects also. 
Grammarians all tell us that finite verbs must have sub- 
jects, because we cannot assert action without asserting 
it of some actor ; but, as a trial will convince us, we find 
it equally difficult to assume action without assuming it of 
some actor. So we have the same reason for saying that 
infinitives and participles must have subjects. It is true 
that some grammarians deny that infinitives have subjects. 



202 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

For instance, in such sentences as, " For him to act so is 
not honorable," they have called him the object of the 
preposition for. But for is not a preposition in this sen- 
tence, for it has no antecedent term of relation. It is no 
more a preposition than is the word that in the sentence, 
" That he should act so is not honorable." Both are 
merely introductory expletives, having no other use than 
to introduce their sentences. But suppose those gram- 
marians still insist that for is a preposition, and say that 
its antecedent is honorable, making the sentence read, "To 
act so is not honorable for him," the question still remains. 
Who is to do the acting ? Then, if we express all of our 
thought we must say, " For him to act so is not honor- 
able for him." Now, certainly, if this last him supplied 
has any grammatical construction, it must be the subject 
of the infinitive to act. In such sentences as the follow- 
ing, " We believe him to be truthful," and " We believe him 
to be a liar," him should be parsed as the subject of the 
infinitive, not the object of the transitive verb believe, for 
sentences should always be parsed in accordance with their 
meaning. Now some authorities, in trying to show us 
that the infinitive does not have a subject, say, for in- 
stance, that if we believe him to be truthful, we there- 
fore believe him; so it is in accordance with the meaning 
of the sentence to parse him as the object of believe. 
But that is too narrow a view, for, although this dispo- 
sition seems to be consistent in this sentence, it will not 
do in the next sentence, " We believe him to be a liar;''' for 
in this sentence, to parse him as the object of believe gives 
the sentence a meaning contrary to the one intended : 
and evidently the two sentences are grammatically alike. 
The parsing of one should be the parsing of the other. 
Him is the subject of the infinitive, not the object of 
believe. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 203 

543. In what Case? — Another question of importance, 
What is the case of the subject of the infinitive ? We see 
from all the foregoing sentences that the case of the infini- 
tive is objective ; but it is true that the same word may 
be the subject both of a finite verb and also of an infini- 
tive. When it is, its case is always determined by the 
finite verb, and is therefore nominative. When it is the 
subject of an infinitive only, it is always objective. So 
the following is the rule that determines the case of the 
subject of an infinitive : When the subject of an infinitive 
does not depend upon any other word it is in the objective 
case. 

544. Why? — Now, it is instructive to ask also, Why 
is the subject of an infinitive in the objective case? Some 
grammarians, who admit that the infinitive has a subject, 
and that the subject is in the objective case, still insist 
that it is objective, not because it is the subject of the 
infinitive, but because of the influence of a preceding 
transitive verb. This, also, I hope to show is incorrect. 
Take, for instance, the sentence given above, " We believe 
him to be a liar." Now, if the word him does not depend 
for its case upon the infinitive to be, and is governed by 
the preceding transitive verb, its case will remain the 
same, regardless of any change the infinitive undergoes, 
so long as the finite verb remains the same. But let us 
change the infinitive to a finite verb, leaving the transitive 
verb believe the same, and the sentence will read, "We 
believe he is a liar." Here the words he and him stand 
in precisely the same relation to the preceding transitive 
verb believe, for this verb has not been changed. The 
change in case must therefore depend upon the change 
that is made in the sentence ; that is, when we change the 
infinitive to a finite verb, the objective him changes to the 
nominative he. So we see the subject of an infinitive is 



204 GBAMMAB OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

in the objective case, for the same reason that the subject 
of a finite verb is in the nominative case ; that is. the sub- 
ject of a finite verb is in the nominative case, because it is the 
subject of a finite verb ; and the subject of <m infinitive is in 
the objective case, because it is the subject of the infinitir,'. 
In other words, the subject of a finite verb is in the nomi- 
native case and the subject of an infinitive is in the 
objective, because the language is so constructed. 

545. True in Other Languages. — We must not suppose 
that this objective subject is a construction peculiar to the 
English language; it is just as common and much more 
noticeable, on account of their extended inflection, in 
Latin and Greek, and it is so understood and disposed of 
by grammarians of those languages. 

"The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative'' 
(objective). — Allen and Greenough's Latin Grammar, 
§ 240 (/). 

" The subject of the infinitive mood is put in the 
accusative." — Andrew and Stoddard' 's Latin Grammar, 
§ 239. 

"The subject of an infinitive is in the accusative; as, 
Legousi tons andras apelthei, 'They say that the men 
went away.'" — Goodwin's Greek Grammar. 

" The infinitive mood in a dependent clause has its sub- 
ject in the accusative." — Bullion's Greek Grammar. 
Art. 729 ; and in Art. 730 he says, " When the subject 
of an infinitive is the same with the subject of the preced- 
ing verb, it is put in the same case." 

"The subject of the infinitive is put in the accusative." 
— Crosby s Greek Grammar. 

" When the infinitive has a subject of its own, it is in 
the accusative. When, however, the subject of the infini- 
tive is not different from the principal subject of the 
sentence, it is not expressed."— KuTmer's G reck Grammar. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 205 

So we see that the subject of an infinitive is governed 

by the rule given above. The subject of an infinitive is in 

the objective case when it is not dependent upon another ivord. 

Examples of infinitives having subjects different from 

those of the finite verb : — 

We believe him to be mistaken. 

She wants them to leave. 

He is the man whom you thought to be me. ■ 

Whom do you want to have your library ? 

Examples of infinitives whose subjects are the same as 
those of the finite verb : — 

He does not intend to be mistaken. 
She wants to leave. 

He is the man who was thought to be I. 
Who wants to have your library ? 

The subject of an infinitive may be : — 

(1) A noun ; as, " We want Paul to sing for us." 

(2) A pronoun ; as, " We want him to sing for us. 1 ' 

(3) A participle ; as, " He thinks cheating me to be beating me." 

(4) Another infinitive ; as, " He thinks to cheat to be to rob." 

(5) A clause ; as, " He thinks that I say nothing about it to be evi- 
dence that I know nothing." 

546. The Subject of a Participle. — The participle, like the 
infinitive, may have for its subject a noun or pronoun that 
depends upon some other word in the sentence, or a noun 
or pronoun that does not depend upon any other word. 

Thus the subject of a participle may be also : — 

(1) The subject of a finite verb ; as, " Alice blushing answered yes." 

(2) The object of a transitive verb; as, "We saw John stealing 
watermelons." 

(3) The complement of a copulative verb; as, "He was a man 
admired by everybody." 

(4) The object of a preposition ; as, " Speak to the girl standing by 
the stove." 

(5) In apposition ; as " Johnson, the gentleman writing on the black- 
board, is a very fine penman." " He wrote to Jordan, the scientist having 
charge of the expedition." 



206 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

In the preceding sentences the words Alice, John, man, 
girl, gentleman, and scientist, the subjects of participles, 
being also dependent upon other words, are governed by 
those other words and not by the participles. Thus Alice 
is the nominative case, because it is the subject of answered. 
John is objective case, because it is the object of saw, 
etc. So we may say that ivhen the subject of a participle 
depends upon any other word in the sentence, its case is 
governed by that other word, not by the participle. But in 
the following sentences the subjects of the participles do 
not depend upon any other word : — 

(1) Mary's leaving surprised everybody. 

(2) I understand your quibbling with him. 

(3) We were not surprised at his accepting your proposition. 

(4) Brown having come in, we conversed with him. 

(5) Our leader having been killed, we abandoned the expedition. 

In the first three of these sentences, it will be observed, 
the participles are used as nouns in dependent construc- 
tions. Thus, leaving is the subject of the verb surprised, 
quibbling is the object of the verb understand, accepting is 
the object of the preposition at. And it will be observed 
also that the subject of each participle is in the possessive 
case. But in the last two sentences, the participles, having 
come and having been killed, have no connection with any 
part of the sentence except their subjects, and the subjects, 
Brown and leader, are the nominative absolute case. So 
we may sum this all up in the following rule : When the 
subject of a participle does not depend upon any other word 
in the sentence, it is in the possessive case or nominative 
absolute : possessive when the participle is used as a noun in 
a dependent construction, and absolute when the participle, 
together with its subject, is used independently. 

(a) This rule is not found, so far as I know, in any other book, but 
the student will find it verified by all correct sentences in which are found 
subjects of participles. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 207 

547. Case of the Complement of an Infinitive Copula. — 
We have seen that the infinitive has a subject, which is 
commonly in the objective case, and that it may, like finite 
verbs, be copulative or attributive. Now let us inquire 
what is the case of the complement of the copulative infin- 
itive. In the sentence, " We thought John would be a 
farmer '," farmer is the complement of the copulative verb 
would be, and is in the nominative case. Now let us abridge 
the subordinate sentence into one whose verb is an infini- 
tive, and it will read, " We thought John to be a farmer." 
Now what is the case of farmer f Its form does not tell 
us, neither does the form of the word John tell us its case ; 
but both may be seen to be objective by supplying pro- 
nouns in their stead. Then we should have a sentence 
like the following: " We thought him to be her. " "She 
thought them to be us" "They thought her to be me." 
So we see that the complement of an infinitive copula is in the 
same case as its subject ; that is, generally objective. When, 
however, the subject of the infinitive is nominative its com- 
plement is also nominative ; as, "I was thought to be she" 
not her. So we have the following rule for the comple- 
ment of all copulative verbs : The complement of a copula- 
tive verb is in the same case as its subject. There is but 
one exception to this rule. 

548. Case of the Complement of a Copulative Participle. — 
We have previously referred to Rule VI, in which it is 
stated that the complement of a copulative verb is in the 
same case as its subject. We have stated also that to this 
rule there is one exception. Here we must notice the 
application of that rule to the participle, in which the 
exception will appear. In the sentence, " He being a 
scholar, we asked his opinion," he, the subject of the par- 
ticiple, is in the nominative absolute case, and scholar, the 
complement, is in the same case. The form would be the 



208 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

same for the nominative as for the nominative absolute, 
and since no reason appears for supposing this to be an 
exception to the general rule stated above, scholar should 
be parsed as a noun in the nominative' absolute case. But 
in the sentence, " His being a scholar has been questioned," 
his, the subject of the participle being, is clearly in the 
possessive case. Scholar, the complement, is not in the 
possessive case, but in the nominative. This then is the ex- 
ception to the rule previously given. So the rule, stated 
in full, would be given as on page 224. 

549. Double Nature of Infinitives and Participles — Their 
Construction. — So from all this it seems we ought to agree 
that infinitives and participles are verbs ; but we must 
now understand that in addition to their verbal nature 
they are used in sentences also as nouns, adjectives, and 
adverbs. So they have a double nature. We must not 
understand that an infinitive or participle is used as all 
these parts of speech at the same time. It always performs 
the office of a verb; and then, in addition to that, it lias 
the force also of one or the other, a noun, an adjective, or 
an adverb. Take the sentence, "I like education." We 
see that education is a noun, used as the object of the 
transitive verb like; and in the following sentence, "I like 
to read," the infinitive to read stands in the same relation 
to the transitive verb like, so it is said to have the use or 
construction of a noun. But some one will say, Why not 
simply call it a noun, and be done with it ? For this 
reason, that, although it stands in the same relation to the 
verb as the noun does, yet it also retains its verbal nature, 
and may be made to govern an object, and to take an 
adverbial element, as in the sentence, " I like to read 
history in the morning" It may be shown also that when 
the infinitive has the construction or use of an adverb it 
retains its verbal nature, as in the sentence, " He came to 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 209 

learn." The infinitive to learn in this sentence tells the 
purpose of his coming, and therefore has the construction 
of an adverb of purpose. But some one will say, Why 
not call it an adverb, and be done with it ? For the same 
reason given above ; it retains its verbal nature — may 
govern an object, and be modified by an adverbial element, 
as in the sentence, " He came to learn grammar without 
much study." This same is true also of an infinitive or 
participle when it is used as an adjective, as in the 
sentences: "The time to do your ivork with most ease is 
the present ; " " The lady sending the message to you is 
Martha." Here it is clear that the infinitive has the use 
of an adjective modifying the noun time; but we know 
also that it is a verb because it takes the object work and 
the adverbial element with most ease. Also, the participle 
sending has the construction of an adjective, modifying 
lady ; but its verbal force is seen in the object message 
and the adverbial element to you. Now for a general 
statement we may say, An infinitive or participle has 
the construction of a noun, when it is used as nouns are 
used ; the construction of an adjective, when it is used as 
adjectives are used ; the construction of an adverb, when it 
is used as adverbs are used. 

550. Construction of a Noun. — We said above that an 
infinitive or particle has the construction of a noun, when 
it is used as nouns are used. The pupil must now recall 
the different uses of nouns. A noun may be used : The 
subject of a finite verb; as, "The boy is pleasant." The 
subject of an infinitive ; as, " We thought John to be dis- 
agreeable." The complement of a finite copida; as, "John 
is a farmer." The complement of an infinitive copula; as 
"We thought John to be a farmer." The object of a 
preposition; as, "I like all the boys but Henry." The 
object of a transitive verb; "I like the boy." In apposi- 



210 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

tion ; as, "Henry, the man that came with you, is my 
brother.** 

Now infinitives and participles may have the same uses, 
as may be seen by comparing the following sentences 
with those immediately preceding : — 

The subject of a finite verb ; as, " To study grammar is pleasant." 
" Studying grammar is pleasant." 

TJie subject of an infinitive ; as, " We once thought to study grammar 
to be disagreeable." "We once thought studying grammar to be 
disagreeable." 

The complement of a finite copula; as, "To study grammar is to ham 
it." "Studying grammar is learning it." 

The complement of an infinitive copula; as, "We know to study 
grammar to be to understand it." " We know studying grammar to be 
understanding it." 

The object of a preposition ; as, " We like it all but to be criticised." 
"We like it all but being criticised.' 1 ' 1 

Tlie object of a transitive verb; as, "We like to study grammar.'' 
"We like studying grammar." 

In apposition; as, "To study anything diligently, to give proper 
attention to it, is to master it." "Studying anything diligently, airing 
proper attention to it, is mastering it." 

551. Construction of an Adjective. — In the sentence, " He 
gave me a medicine good for all ills," the word good is a 
direct adjective, limiting the noun medicine. An infinitive 
may have the same use, as in the sentence, " He gave me 
permission to use his tools." As it was good medicine, so 
it was using permission. To use is therefore an infinitive 
with the construction of a direct adjective, modifying the 
noun permission. An infinitive may be used also as a 
predicate adjective, as in the sentences, " The boys are 
to blame" (blamable), "Gas is to be found (findable) in 
Indiana." Neither an infinitive nor an active participle 
can be used as a resultant adjective. When an active 
participle is so used it loses its verbal force and becomes 
merely an adjective (see Article 558). 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 211 

552. Construction of an Adverb. — Whenever an infinitive 
performs any of the offices of an adverb, it is said to have 
the construction of an adverb. An infinitive with the 
construction of an adverb usually limits a verb, as an 
adverb of purpose; as, "We came to learn." But it may 
limit an adjective or an adverb to express purpose ; as, 
"Apples are good to eat; " " I have studied French enough 
to read it." In such sentences as, "He is too weak to 
stand" the infinitive has the construction of an adverb of 
degree, limiting the adverb too. The principal uses of 
infinitives with the construction of an adverb are, to 
express : — 

Cause: "I grieve to hear it." 

Purpose: "I came to learn." 

A future event : " He fell to rise no more." 

Manner: "Everything went to suit me." 

Degree: "He is old enough to ivalk.' 1 '' 

553. How to determine the Construction of an Infinitive or 
Participle. — It is often difficult to determine what con- 
struction the infinitive or participle has. It is always 
helpful to find what part of speech the word will be that 
can be made to take the place of the infinitive or parti- 
ciple, when one can be found. Thus, " He likes to learn" 
is almost like, "He likes education." "Time to come is 
beyond our control," is the same as, " Future time is 
beyond our control." " He is skilful in building houses," 
expresses the same thought as, "He is skilful in architec- 
ture." Another means of determining the construction 
of an infinitive or participle is to expand it into a clause 
and observe what use the clause performs. Thus, " He 
desires me to see you" is the same as, " He desires that I 
see you" in which, that I see you is a substantive clause. 
" He came here to learn grammar" is equivalent to " He 
came here that he might learn grammar" in which, that he 



212 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

might learn grammar is an adverbial clause. "The boy 
sitting on the bench struck me," is the same as, " The boy 
that sits on the bench struck me," in which, that sits on the 
bench is an adjective clause. But many infinitives and 
participles will be found whose equivalents it is impossible 
to express, either in a single word or in a complete subor- 
dinate sentence. 

554. Not the Infinitive or Participle alone, but its Clause. — 
When the infinitive or participle stands alone it may be 
correctly parsed as having the construction of a noun, 
adjective, or adverb. But when it is used as a part of a 
phrase or clause, then it is the entire phrase or clause, not 
the infinitive or participle alone, that has the construction 
of a noun, adjective, or adverb. Thus Ave may parse to 
learn in such sentences as, " He wants to learn" as an 
infinitive having the construction of a noun, the object of 
wants. But in such sentences as, " He wants me to learn 
grammar" we should say to learn is an infinitive, and the 
abridged clause in which it is found, me to learn grammar, 
has the construction of a noun, object of wants. 

555. A Participle becomes a Noun. — Whenever a parti- 
ciple is immediately preceded by the article the and fol- 
lowed by the preposition of it loses all its verbal force 
and should then be parsed as a participial noun, as in the 
following sentences: " The closing of the bank caused 
much alarm." "The dispute was concerning the opening 
of the fair." The same is true of a participle that is 
limited directly by an adjective. It then becomes a 
noun; as, " Ordinary walking is tiresome." Such con- 
structions must be carefully distinguished from the fol- 
lowing, in which the same words retain their power to be 
modified by adverbial elements and to govern objects, and 
should therefore be parsed as participles: "Closing the 
bank at this time necessitates closing all other forms of 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 213 

business." "He was made bankrupt by closing the bank 
too soon." " Opening a bank here is opening many other 
business enterprises." But since the participles in the 
sentences immediately preceding sustain also the relations 
of nouns — subject of a verb, object of a verb, object of a 
preposition, and complement of a copulative verb, — the 
complete parsing of each will be as a partible with the 
construction of a noun. 

The participle often becomes a noun even without the 
article or the adjective, as in "Painting, music, sculpture, 
architecture, and literature are the five fine arts." In 
such cases it is sometimes difficult to distinguish a par- 
ticiple from a mere participial noun, as in (1) "Painting 
is delightful exercise ; " and (2) " Painting is a fine art." 
Painting in (1) evidently refers to an action, which takes 
place upon some object, in some place, at some time, in 
some manner, and by some actor. It is therefore a par- 
ticiple. But painting in (2) is simply the name of one of 
the fine arts, not referring to any action, and is therefore 
only a noun. A participle alivays retains the idea of time, 
and if active and transitive it can be given an object without 
destroying its force in the sentence. Thus, the first might 
be written, " Painting pictures in the morning is a delight- 
ful exercise," but we would not say, "Painting pictures is 
a fine art;" but rather, "Painting pictures is practising a 
fine art." So we see that it changes the meaning of the 
second to put in an object for painting. 

556. A Participle becomes a Direct Adjective. — When any 
word that is commonly a participle is made to limit a noun 
immediately following it, it then loses its verbal force and 
becomes merely a direct participial adjective ;. as, " The 
driving winds were irresistible." But in the following 
sentence the same word should be parsed as a participle, 
for it performs the verbal offices of taking an adverbial 



214 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

element and an object: "The winds driving everything 
before them did much damage." But in this sentence, as 
in all such, the participle performs also the office of an 
adjective, so that its complete parsing will be as a parti- 
ciple with the construction of an adjective. 

557. A Participle becomes a Predicate Adjective. — When an 
active participle performs the office of a predicate adjec- 
tive it loses its verbal nature; as, " Wealth is deceiving." 
" Time is fleeting. " " Children are amusing." All such as 
the italicized words should be parsed as participial predi- 
cate adjectives. It is impossible to give a sentence con- 
taining an active participle with the construction of a 
predicate adjective following a pure copulative verb. 
Passive participles frequently have the construction of 
predicate adjectives ; as, " He lives there loved by every- 
body." 

558. A Participle becomes a Resultant or Factitive Adjective 
in all such sentences as the following : " His peculiarities 
made him amusing." "Iron's density makes it deceiving." 

559. The Progressive Form of a Finite Verb is formed with 
a present active participle together with some form of the 
verb to be ; as, " Henry is ploiving the field." " We are 
reciting our lessons." Be careful to distinguish the pro- 
gressive form of a finite verb, as in, " He is pleasing me," 
from the copulative and predicate adjective, as in, " Your 
conduct is pleasing." And both of these must be dis- 
tinguished from the copulative verb followed by a parti- 
ciple with the construction of a predicate noun, as in, 
"Doing what a man wants done is pleasing him." 

560. It is difficult to distinguish — 

(1) An infinitive with the construction of a direct adjec- 
tive from one with the construction of a noun in apposition, 

as in : — 

(1) My desire to teach is now satisfied ; and, 

(2) My task to teach is pleasant. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 215 

The infinitive is in apposition when it may change 
places with the term it modifies without changing the 
thought of the sentence. Thus, the (2) may be written 
either My task is pleasant, or To teach is pleasant; or, 
the terms may change places so as to read, To teach, my 
task, is pleasant. But in (1), desire and to teach do not 
mean the same thing ; " to teach " merely explains which 
desire — desire for teaching. It Avould give no meaning to 
say, " To teach is now satisfied." In the (1), therefore, 
to teach has the construction of an adjective ; and in 
(2), to teavh has the construction of a noun in apposi- 
tion. 

(2-) An infinitive ivith the construction of a predicate 
adjective from one with the construction of a predicate noun, 
as in : — 

(1) George is to blame (blamable). 

(2) Iron is not to be found (findable) there. 

(3) To die is to cease to live (death is cessation of life). 

(4) The way to believe is to investigate (investigation). 

The infinitives in all such sentences as (1) and (2), it 
will be observed, only express of subjects such attributes 
as adjectives might express. The infinitive completing 
the copulative verb and the subject noun express ideas 
not at all identical, and could not be made to exchange 
places without destroying the sense. Such infinitives, 
therefore, have the construction of predicate adjectives. 
But in (3) and (4), the italicized infinitives complete 
the copulas, not like predicate adjectives, but like predi- 
cate nouns. No adjective will here take the place of 
to cease and to investigate. The sense is precisely the 
same if we write the sentences, " To cease to live is to 
die," and " To investigate is the way to believe." All 
such infinitives, then, as to cease and to investigate in 
(3) and (4) have the construction of predicate nouns. 



216 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

561. Infinitives and participles are alike in — 

(1) Both arc verbs. 

(2) Both are unlimited by person and number. 

(3) Both assume, and not assert, action, being, and state. 

(4) Both express time relative!)/, not absolutely. 

(5) Both have the constructions of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs. 

562. Infinitives and participles are unlike in — 

(1) The 'participle may become a noun; as, "Painting is one of the 
fine arts;' 1 or an adjective; as, "Howling wolves," while the infinitive 
never loses its verbal nature. 

(2) Tlie infinitive usually has a sign; the participle has none except 
its ending. 

563. Sign of the Infinitive. — It must be understood that 
to has no prepositional force when it is used as the sign of 
the infinitive. It is merely a sign, nothing more. The 
use of the sign to before the infinitive is comparatively 
recent, and would not be needed if Ave had a different 
form for the present indicative. Goold Brown and others 
parse the infinitive as the object of its sign to, which they 
call a preposition. But the English of to-day furnishes 
no ground for such a disposition. One had as well parse 
the present active participle as the object of its ending 
ing. In Anglo-Saxon there was a construction in which 
to governed a verbal noun in the dative ; but we have no 
trace of it in English. We are told by high authority 
that the human race has descended from four-foot cm 1 
ancestors. But whether this be true or false, it would 
certainly be very unscientific, to say the least, to describe 
the man of to-day as four-footed. But this would not 
surpass the stupidity of parsing the English infinitive as 
the object of to, which, if it ever had prepositional force, 
has as clearly lost it as a man has lost his additional pair 
of feet. 

This sign of the infinitive is often lengthened into in 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 217 

order to, as, "He came in order to learn." In such sen- 
tences, in order to learn should be parsed as the infinitive. 
It gives the wrong meaning to divide the phrase. 

564. The sign is omitted after the active verbs make, 
let, see, hear, also after the adverbs rather and lief ; as, 
" Make him come in," " I had as lief not be" etc. The 
omission of the sign is optional after dare, help, need, and 
please, and some others. 

The omission of the sign after make and bid is confined 
to positive expressions. One would say, " Bid him come 
in," or, " Bid him not to come in." 

When the verbs have and see are followed by a passive 
infinitive, the verb to be, as well as the sign to, is often 
suppressed; as, "They would have him [to be] killed." 
"I saw him [to be] sentenced." 

(a) These statements may not be altogether satisfactory, but no more 
definite rules can be given. The student must learn from language itself 
what is the best usage. He will often find that the sign is expressed in a 
sentence, which, when put in a slightly different form, would require the 
sign to be omitted * as, "I dare you to do it ; " " Dare you do it ? " "I 
dare to do, but I dare not 3ie." 

565. The Infinitive is that form of the verb, usually pre- 
ceded by the sign to, that, while performing the office of a 
noun, an adjective, or an adverb, assumes or implies action, 
being, or state without affirming it, and retains the same 
form, regardless of the person and number of its subject. 

(a) In Greek and Latin, as in English and most other modern 
languages, ' ' infinitive ' ' is used as the general name of the verb, as the 
verb to give, the verb to love, etc. 

(6) In English, the infinitive without its sign generally has the same 
form as the present indicative, and they are commonly spoken of to- 
gether, but they are so different in use that they demand separate treat- 
ment. 

(c) All participles ending in ing and having substantive uses are also 
frequently called infinitives or participial infinitives. 



218 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(Y?) The infinitive commonly has the construction of a noun, or of an 
adverb, very seldom that of an adjective. 

(e) In English, every transitive verb has four infinitives and four 
participles, — two of each for each voice. Thus, from the verb write we 
have : — 

J (a) Present Active, to write. 
(b) Present Passive. t<> be written. 
I (c) Perfect Active, to have written. 
[ ((?) Perfect Passive, to have been written. 
f (a) Present Active, writing. 
J (6) Present Passive, being written. 
I (c) Perfect Active having written. 
^ (d) Perfect Passive, having been written. 

(/) Of course every intransitive verb would lack the passive infinitives 
and passive participles. 

566. The Participle is that form of the verb, usually indi- 
cated by its ending, that, while performing the office of a 
noun, an adjective, or an adverb, assumes or implies action, 
being, or state without affirming it, and retains the same form 
regardless of the person and number of its subject. 

(«) The participle commonly has the construction of an adjective, or 
of a noun, very seldom that of an adverb. In all such sentences as the 
following : — 

(1) "I saw George walking down Washington Street ; " (2) "I saw 

George walk the wire," it will be observed that we use the participle 
when we wish to direct particular attention, not to the act, but rather to the 
agent ; and the infinitive when the act is the uppermost in our thought. 
Here walking should be parsed as a participle with the construction of an 
adjective limiting George. In (2), walk is an infinitive, and the clause, 
George to walk the wire, has the construction of a noun, the object of saw. 

In the foregoing discussion no effort has been made to 
have it harmonize with anybody's dictum concerning infin- 
itives and participles ; on the other hand, no pains have 
been spared to make it accord with the uses performed by 
infinitives and participles wherever they may be found in 
English sentences. 

Professor Whitney classes infinitives and participles as 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 219 

nouns and adjectives. He says, " The line which separates 
them from the latter is indistinct and variable. The point 
is one of no small consequence in grammar, and it may fairly 
be denied that one who is not right in regard to it can call 
himself a grammarian." But in the light of the facts 
here brought together, it seems that Professor Whitney 
ought to have said: " The line that separates infinitives 
and participles from nouns and adjectives is distinct and 
invariable." Then he might have added, with more mean- 
ing and more consistency, " The point is one of no small 
consequence in grammar, and it may fairly be denied that 
one that is not right in regard to it can call himself a 
grammarian." 

567. Independent Use of Infinitives and Participles. — There 
are several absolute constructions of infinitives and parti- 
ciples, but in a sentence like, " To tell the truth, I do not 
like him," the infinitive may be parsed as having the con- 
struction of an adverb of purpose, limiting a verb under- 
stood. Here, to supply the ellipsis, it would read, " To 
tell the truth, [I confess] I do not like him." If we wish 
to parse to tell without supplying anything, all that can 
be done is to say that it is an infinitive used independently. 

568. Parsing of infinitives and participles. 

1. He has gone to find his hat. 

2. He came attended by his friends. 

3. The apples are to be picked to-morrow. 

4. I believe him to have been mistaken. 

(a) Require pupils to state definitely the construction of every infini- 
tive or participle. It is not enough to say of it simply that it has the con- 
struction of a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. Expressly state whether 
it has the construction of a noun in the nominative case, or of a noun in 
the objective case ; whether it has the construction of a direct adjective, 
a predicate adjective, or a resultant adjective ; and if it has the construc- 
tion of an adverb, state definitely the idea it expresses, whether of time, 
purpose, cause, etc. Also observe whether it is the infinitive or participle 



220 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

alone, or its entire clause, that should he given the construction of a 
noun, adjective, or adverb. 

(1) To find, v., trans., attrib., irreg., — find, found, 
found, — act., inf., pres., with the con. of an adv. of pur- 
pose, limiting lias gone, Rules XVI and XI. 

(2) [Being] attended, v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., part., 
pres., with the con. of a pred. adj., limiting he, Rules XVI 
and X. 

(3) To be picked, v., trans., attrib., reg., pass., inf., pics.. 
with the con. of a pred. adj., limiting apples, link's XVI 
and X. 

(4) To have been, v., intrans., cop., irreg,, — am, was, 
been, — inf., pres. perf., — the entire abridged clause, him 
to have been mistaken, lias the con. of a noun in the objec- 
tive case, obj. of believe, Rules XVI and IV. 

(b) This form of parsing does not necessarily give case to the infinitive 
or participle, but only tells what case would he given to a noun so used. 
But for that matter, there is no good reason for denying case to our infini- 
tives and participles, for, in English, case means not form but relation. 

569. Sentences for Parsing. 

(a) Give the complete written parsing, according to the models, of all 
italicized words, and of all others as signed by the teacher. (b) Several 
of the following sentences are ambiguous. See that the pupil understands 
all possible meanings of each sentence, and which meaning was probably 
the one intended. See, also, that he can give the parsing corresponding 
to each meaning. 

570. (a) Very Simple Constructions. 

(1) To sin is to suffer. 

(2) He likes to rest. 

(3) They have come to assist us. 

(4) Training horses is making them useful. 

(5) He came tumbling in at the door. 

(6) Let us get permission to remain. 

(7) The boy is anxious to have his trial. 

(8) I come not here to talk. 

(9) Flee from the wrath to come. 

(10) The curious go to church to see ; the vain, to he seen. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 221 

(11) The dog lying by the child is protecting her. 

(12) A letter written with a pen is more desirable than one done on a 
typewriter. 

(13) Learn to live and live to learn. 

(14) It is wrong to deceive children. 

(15) To see a thing is to believe it. 

(16) He believes trying to be succeeding. 

(17) The task to write an essay was assigned me. 

(18) Lying, telling untruths, is deserving of punishment. 

(19) Sometimes to read seems not to be to understand. 

(20) Studying seems to be learning. 

(21) Having enjoyed reading Shakespeare an hour, let us get our 



(22) She does nothing but criticise. 

(23) The rustling of the leaves frightened us. 

(24) The rustling leaves frightened us. 

(25) The leaves rustling near us frightened us. 

(26) To return home after this, never ! never ! 

(27) Making sport of a poor simpleton, how rude ! 

(28) She is to blame for keeping us waiting. 

(29) Murdering her own child, how dreadful ! 

(30) He sits there growling instead of giving thanks. 

(31) In time to come we may succeed better. 

(32) This campaign seems more exciting. 

(33) He fell to rise no more. 

(34) The child is not well enough to stay. 

(35) He did his work well enough to get the prize. 

(36) The desire to please is worthy of being cultivated. 

(37) Being brief and yet clear, that is most difficult. 

(38) She thought to study to be better than to be scolded. 

(39) Good books and magazines discussing all current events are to be 
found here. 

(40) Please excuse me for writing to you. 

(41) Please excuse me from writing to you. 

(42) We saw him fall. 

(43) We saw him walking down the street. 

(44) He thought merely to ask to be to get what he asked for. 

(45) He is considered to be reliable. 

(46) He blames us for being interesting. 

(47) For one to know what to try to be is as difficult as to be what one 
undertakes to be. 

(48) Suddenly there came a tapping, as of some one gently rapping, 
rapping at my chamber door. 



222 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

571. (b) More Interesting Constructions. 

(1) The slave stepped upon the block to be sold. 

(2) The auctioneer stepped upon the wagon to be sold. 

(3) I am going to sell my wheat. 

(4) I am going to town to Bell my wheat. 

(5) Whom does she want to help f 

(6) He thought to go to sea to work to be to try to learn (<> be a saUor. 

(7) He believes the man to have been hanged to satisfy the mob. 

(8) The house to have been dedicated this morning was built to be 
used as a church. 

(0) The band is to have a new leader. 

(10) The boy is to become a man. 

(11) Diamonds are worn to become the wearer. 

(12) I have to go to sleep. 

(13) I had as lief not be as live to be in awe of such a thing as I my- 
self. 

(14) An important study is reading. 

(15) George is reading. 

(16) Studying a book is reading it attentively. 

(17) I want to try to do what he wants done. 

(18) Try to get ready. 

(19) Is it better to be born great, or to have greatness thrust upon us? 

(20) You may expect the dishes to be broken. 

(21) The plate being broken, we did not buy it. 

(22) The stones being broken are for a foundation. 

(23) An amusing story was told. 

(24) The story is amusing. 

(25) The story is amusing the children. 

(26) The story amusing the children was written by Hawthorne. 

(27) Making children laugh is amusing them. 

(28) The amusing of the child has become a problem. 

(29) Amusing him is pleasing him. 

(30) His peculiarities made the man amusing. 

(31) A man despised by everybody is generally a bad man. 

(32) He died loved by his friends, but despised by his enemies. 

(33) His wickedness made him despised by everybody. 

(34) The letters being written are to the president. 

(35) The letters having been written, the man mailed them. 

(36) The dog having run out, my horse became frightened and un- 
manageable. 

(37) I believe him to have been mistaken about me. 

(38) I believe him to have been mistaken for me. 



INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 223 

(39) Marley was dead, to begin with. 

(40) Selling whiskey to minors having been forbidden, we may look 
for happier homes. 

(II) His having disappointed you in his teaching of reading is not so 
surprising as his denying having made special preparation for doing it. 

(42) Clearly we shall never he able to do ivJiat we always put off 
attempting. 

(43) I do not remember to have seen you try it before. 

(44) The team ordered by him is now running away. 

(45) We are commanded to do unto others as we would have others 
do unto us. 

(46) It did not seem to be you. 

(47) He is said to be very rich. 

(48) You had better try to go. 

(49) They are about to begin. 

(50) I sometimes hold it half a sin to put in words the grief I feel. 

(51) To be, or not to be, — that is the question : 
Whether 'tis nobler in the mind to suffer 
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, 
Or to take arms against a sea of troubles. 
And by opposing end them. 

572. Review of Infinitives and Participles. 

(1) What is meant by the scientific method of studying each part of 
speech ? Illustrate. (2) Define a verb. (3) Show that finite verbs do 
not always assert. (4) Show that infinitives and participles have the 
classes of verbs, — (a) attributive and copulative; (5) transitive and. in- 
transitive. (5) Show that infinitives and participles may express action, 
being, or state. (6) Show that infinitives and participles have the prop- 
erties of verbs, — {a) voice, {b) mode, (c) tense. (7) What tenses do 
infinitives and participles have ? (8) What time is expressed by each of 
these tenses? (9) What parts of speech may govern objects? (10) 
Show that infinitives and participles may govern objects. (11) What is 
the only part of speech that has a subject ? (12) Show that infinitives 
and participles have subjects. (13) In what case is the subject of an in- 
finitive ? Illustrate. (14) In what case is the subject of a participle? 
Illustrate. (15) Show that infinitives and participles when copulative 
may be completed by either adjectives or substantives. (16) In what 
case is the complement of an infinitive copula? (17) In what case is 
the complement of a participial copula ? (18) Illustrate what may be 
the subject of an infinitive. (19) What is meant by saying that infin- 
itives and participles have a double nature ? (20) In addition to their 



224 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

verbal use, what uses may each have ? (21) Show how to determine the 
construction of an infinitive or of a participle. (22) Show how a word 
that is commonly a participle may become, — («) a noun; (/>) a direct 
adjective ; (c) a predicate adjective ; (d) a resultant adjective ; (e) a pari 
of the progressing form of a finite verb. (2:)) Distinguish, — (a) an in- 
finitive with the construction of a direct adjective from one with the con- 
struction of a noun in apposition; (/>) an infinitive with the construction 
of a predicate adjective from one with the construction of a predicate 
noun. (24) In what are infinitives and participles alike ? (26) In 
what are they unlike ? (26) Tell what you know about the sign of 
the infinitive. (27) Define an infinitive and a participle. (28) Use 
the word interesting, — (a) as an adjective, — [1] direct; [2] predicate ; 
[3] resultant ; (b) as a noun; (c) as a part of the progressing form of 
a finite verb; (d) as a participle with the construction of an adjective; 
(e) as a participle with the construction of a no%in, — [1] subject of a 
finite verb, [2] object of a transitive verb, [8] object of a preposi- 
tion, [4] complement of a finite copula, [5] subject of an infini- 
tive, [6] complement of an infinitive copula whose subject is objective, 
[7] in apposition. (29) Use similarly each of the following words : 
amusing, perplexing, enticing, deceiving, distressing. 

573. Rules of Syntax. 

SUBJECTS. 
FINITE VERB. 

I. The subject of a finite verb is always in the nomi- 
native case. 

INFINITIVE. 

II. The subject of an infinitive is in the objective case 
when it is not also the subject or attributive complement 
of a finite verb. 

PARTICIPLE. 

III. When the subject of a participle does not depend 
upon any other word in the sentence, it is in the possessive 
case or nominative absolute : possessive when the parti- 
ciple is used as a noun in a dependent construction, and 
absolute when the participle with its subject is used inde- 
pendently. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 225 

OBJECTS. 

TRANSITIVE VERB. 

IV. The object of an active transitive verb is in the 
objective case. 

PREPOSITION. 

V. The object of a preposition is in the objective case. 

IDENTIFICATION. 

ATTRIBUTIVE COMPLEMENT. 

VI. A noun or pronoun used as the complement of a 
copulative verb is in the same case as its subject. Excep- 
tion. — When the subject of a copulative participle is pos- 
sessive, the complement is nominative. 

APPOSITION. 

VII. A noun or pronoun in apposition is in the same 
case as the noun or pronoun it explains. 

POSSESSIVE CASE. 

VIII. A noun or pronoun limiting another noun signi- 
fying a different thing is in the possessive case. 

ABSOLUTE CASE. 

IX. A noun or pronoun used independently is in the 
nominative absolute case. 

MODIFIERS. 

ADJECTIVES. 

X. Adjectives limit nouns and pronouns. 



226 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

ADVERBS. 

XI. Adverbs (usually) limit verbs, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

CONNECTIVE OR RELATION WORDS. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

XII. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and sen- 
tences. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

XIII. A preposition shows the relation of its object to 
the word the phrase limits. 

AGREEMENT. 

PRONOUN. 

XIV. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, 
number, and gender. 

FINITE VERB. 

XV. A finite verb agrees with its subject in person 
and number. 

INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES. 

XVI. Infinitives and participles are used as nouns, 
adjectives, and adverbs. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

XVII. An interjection does not depend for grammati- 
cal construction upon any other word. 

EXPLETIVES. 

XVIII. The words and, that, there, for, and some others 
are often used merely as introductory expletives. 



ANALYSIS. 227 



ANALYSIS. 

574. Grammatical Analysis is such a separation of the 
sentence as will show hoiv its parts are related. 

575. Value of Analysis : — 

(1) It impresses the principles governing the construc- 
tion of the sentence. 

(2) It leads the student to relate ideas, and to see that 
their relations determine the relations of the parts of the 
sentence that express them. One's analysis of a sentence, 
therefore, will always depend upon his understanding of 
its thought. 

(3) It enables the class and the teacher to compare dif- 
ferent understandings. 

(4) It cultivates clearness, accuracy, precision, and 
facility of expression. 

(5) It leads to the habit of general analytic thought. 

(6) It is delightfully interesting. 

576. Form of Analysis. — Analysis is always mental. It 
may be also either oral or written. Again, written analy- 
sis may be in full or by diagram. Writing the analysis in 
full affords valuable exercise in punctuation, capitaliza- 
tion, spelling, and neatness, but the teacher should not 
require more of it than is necessary to the end sought. 

577. Analysis by diagram seems unfortunately to have 
fallen from its former good standing. It has very largely 
been discarded from the schools. Admitting that, like 
any other good thing, it may be overdone, I confidently 
charge that all other criticisms I have heard urged against 
it are, to put it most charitably, superficial and unpeda- 



228 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

gogical. The most profound of these objections is, — 
"You cannot put a sentence in diagram till you know- 
how ; and when you know how, what is the use of doing 
it?" This objection (?) holds equally against solving a 
problem in arithmetic, demonstrating a proposition in 
geometry, and writing out a translation. 

578. Analysis may be regarded as a kind of abridged 
parsing. It consists in the classiiication of sentences and 
their elements. 

CLASSIFICATION OP SENTENCES. 

579. A Sentence is an expression of thought in words* 

580. (A) As to rank, sentences are Principal or Subor- 
dinate. 

581. A Principal Sentence is one not used as a modifier. 

582. A Subordinate Sentence is one used as <<n elei nent in 
a principal sentence. 

(a) "John struck James " is a principal sentence, but in u I believe 
John struck James," "John struck James' 1 is subordinate, used as a 
simple objective element. In the last, either / believe, or the entire 
sentence, " I believe John struck James," may be regarded as the prin- 
cipal sentence. When the subordinate clause is used as the subject of a 
verb, as in "That John struck James is certain," then the clause is an 
inseparable part of the principal sentence. Also when it is used as a 
predicate noun. 

583. A Clause is a subordinate sentence. 

584. Clauses are Substantive, Adjective, Adverbial*, accord- 
ing as they perform the office of a noun, of an adjective, 
or of an adverb. 

585. A Substantive Clause may be : — 

(1) The subject of a verb: " That he is a thief is evident." "We 
believe Industry ivins to be a good motto." 

(2) The complement of a copula: "His motto is, Labor conquers all 
things." " I believe his motto to bu Labor conquers all things.'* 

(3) The object of a verb : "I believe that he is a thief* 11 



ANALYSIS. 229 

(4) The object of a preposition : "They are disputing about who was 
elected." " I left after he came." 

(5) In apposition : "The question, Are we a nation ? was answered 
by Sumner." 

586. An Adverbial Clause may modify : — 

(«) An adverb or adjective to express degree, as : " Henry walks faster 
than I run." " You are better than 1 am." 
(b) A verb to express — 

(1) Time: " We shall start when the train arrives." 

(2) Place : " Come where the roses are blooming." 

(3) Condition : "You will succeed if you try." 

(4) Manner : " I shall proceed as you may direct." 

(5) Purpose : " He came that he might be instructed." 

(6) Beason : " I will leave because you are here." 

(7) Opposition or concession : " Though he slay me, yet will I trust 
him." Such clauses are introduced by though, although, notwithstand- 
ing, hoivever, etc. 

587. An Adjective or Relative Clause may be : — 

(1) Restrictive: one that restricts the predication, or distinguishes 
the object or objects represented by its antecedent from others of the same 
class ; as, " Words that are names are nouns." 

(2) Explanatory: one that explains its antecedent or expresses an 
additional idea; as, "Words, which are the signs of ideas, are divided 
into classes." " Solomon, ivho built the temple, was the wisest of kings." 
" The man, who understood mathematics, easily followed the explanation." 

(«) An explanatory clause expresses a thought coordinate with that of 
the principal sentence, and for this reason it has been called a coordinating 
clause. For example, we may express the meaning of the last three sen- 
tences in this way : ' ' Words are divided into classes, and they are the 
signs of ideas." "Solomon was the wisest of kings, and he built the 
temple." "The man understood mathematics, and he easily followed 
the explanation." But it will not give the meaning of the preceding- 
sentence to say: "Words are nouns and they are names." 

The student should remember that who and which are used in all 
explanatory clauses, and very sparingly in restrictive clauses. Best 
authorities prefer that in all restrictive clauses except when the rela- 
tive immediately follows a preposition. Then, of course, whom or which 
must be used. 

588. (i?) As to structure, sentences are Simple, Com- 
pound, Partial-Compound, Complex, Complete, and Abridged. 



230 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

589- A Simple Sentence is a single statement ; as : — 

Cows are quadrupeds. The history of America is a very interesting 
story. Who came with you ? 

590. A Compound Sentence is one containing two or more 
sentences of equal rank, joined by one or more coordinate 

connectives ; as : — 

Art is long and time is fleeting. He aimed at the target but he could 
not hit it. They that were first shall be last, and they that were last 
shall be first. 

(a) The first in a compound sentence is called the leading sentence, 
and any other, a coordinate sentence. Or they may be designated as 
first member, second member, etc. 

591. A Partial-Compound Sentence is one in which either 
or both of the principal elements are compound ; as : — 

John and Mary are a handsome couple. They came and desired an 
interview. John and James came and remained. 

592. A Complex Sentence is one containing one or more 
complete subordinate sentences. The subordinate sentence 
itself may be either simple, complex, or compound. 

I believe you are mistaken. I am the man that said you loere mis- 
taken. If he is industrious and she is economical, prosperity will crown 
their efforts. 

593. A Complete Sentence is one ivhose verb is finite ; as : — 

She is a musician. 

594. An Abridged Sentence is one whose verb is an infini- 
tive or a particip>le ; as : — 

I believe her to be a musician. She being a musician, we were well 
entertained. 

595. (C) As to use, sentences are Declarative, Interroga- 
tive, Exclamatory, and Imperative. 

596. A Declarative Sentence is one that asserts or denies ; 
as : — 

He is honest. He is not honest. 



ANALYSIS. 231 

597. An Interrogative Sentence is one that asks a ques- 
tion ; as : — 

Is he honest ? 

598. An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in exclama- 
tion ; as : — 

How honest he is ! 

599. An Imperative Sentence is one whose verb is im- 
perative ; as : — 

Go to the ant. Hear me for my cause. 

(a) An imperative is often used with the force of an exclamatory sen- 
tence ; as, " See that beautiful bird." 

(b) The subject of an imperative sentence is usually thou, you, or ye, 
but it is sometimes a noun in the third person, or a pronoun in the first. 

Green be their graves. Hallowed be thy name. 
To the next circle, teacher, bend thy steps, 
And from this wall dismount we. 

— Gary's Dante's Inferno, line 71, canto 24. 

600. In the following, describe the sentences as to rank, 
structure, and use. Also point out the simple and the com- 
plex subject and predicate of each sentence. 

(1) Hope deferred maketh the heart sick. 

(2) Give me the portion of goods that falleth to me. 

(3) A river with many branches waters the land. 

(4) The old oaken bucket hangs in the well. 

(5) Read books that impart information. 

(6) What a piece of work is man ! 

(7) The vine still clings to the mouldering wall, and at every gust 
the dead leaves fall. 

(8) He will return to school when vacation is over. 

(9) Homer was the greater genius, Virgil the better artist. 
(10) Then see you not his face ? 

CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS. 

601. Elements are the constituent parts of a sentence. 

602. (A) According to rank, elements are Principal and 
Subordinate. 



232 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

603. Principal Elements are those without which a sentence 
cannot exist. They are the Subject and Predicate. 

604. The Subject of a sentence is the part that expresses 
that of which something is predicated. 

(a) The subject is always a substantive. 

(6) The unmodified subject is called the simple Subject, and the simple 
subject together with its modifiers is called the complex subject. 

605. The Predicate of a sentence is the part that makes 
the predication. It consists of an attribute and copula; as : — 

Sugar is sweet. Birds are animals. 

Here is sweet and are animals are the predicates, of 
which is and are are the copulas and street and a)iimals 
are the attributes. 

(a) The copula and attribute are often united in one word ; as: — 

Susan reads = Susan is a reader. 
(5) A predicate must always be a verb or contain one, since a verb is 
the only part of speech that can predicate. 

(c) The copula is the part of the predicate that joins the attribute to 
the subject. It is either pure or impure. The pure copula is always 
some form of the verb to be ; as, " He is wealthy.'' Many other verbs are 
used as impure copulas; as, ll I feet dizzy; 1 ' "fie too/to sad;" "She 
toas considered agreeable ;" " He was appointed colonel." 

(d) The attribute is the attributive part of the predicate. It is always 
a noun or an adjective or an expression so used. 

(>) As a substantive the attribute may be : — 

(1) A noun : " He is a merchant." 

(2) A pronoun : "If I were she." 

(3) A participle : " Lying is telling untruths." 

(4) An infinitive : " His business is to teach music." 

(5) A clause : "The question is, Are you the man ?" 

(/) As an adjective the attribute may be : — 

(1) An adjective : " She is good." 

(2) An infinitive : "Oil is to be found in Indiana." 

(3) A prepositional phrase : "I am for peace.''' 

606. (B) According to form, elements are Simple, Com- 
pound, Partial- Compound, and Complex. 



ANALYSIS. 233 

607. A Simple Element is one without modifiers, or con- 
sidered apart from its modifiers. 

"The old man speaks fluently." In this sentence flue ntly is a simple 
element, because it is without modifiers, and man and speaks are simple 
elements if they are considered apart from their modifiers. 

608. A Compound Element is one having a compound 
base. 

"Smith and Jones went to Boston and to Chicago." In this sentence 
Smith and Jones is a compound element ; also, the element to Boston and 
to Chicago. 

609. A Partial-Compound Element is one a part of whose 
base is compound. 

" He is wise and good." Here wise and good is the partial-compound 
predicate — the copula is simple, hut the attribute is compound. "The 
work was performed amidst hardships and dangers." In this sentence 
amidst hardships and dangers is a partial-compound element. 

610. A Complex Element is one whose base or some part 
of it is modified by something not any part of the base. 

"The little children ran to the old oak." In this sentence The little 
children "and to the old oak are complex elements. 

(a) The base of an element is the part of it that expresses its primary 
idea. It may be a word, a phrase, or a clause. 

" The little girl came to our school. ' ' In this sentence girl is the base of 
the element The little girl, and to school is the base of the element to our 
school. In the sentence, "A boy that is truthful will win respect," the base 
of the element, A boy that is truthful, is boy, and the base of the element 
that is truthful is not that, is, or truthful, but the entire clause, that is 
truthful. 

(5) When the base of an element is a clause, determine the form of the 
element by that of the clause. That is, if it is a simple clause, call it a 
simple element ; as, "A student that is attentive in class has a great ad- 
vantage." If it is a compound clause, call it a compound element ; as, " I 
believe that he is honest and that he ivill succeed." If it is a partial-com- 
pound clause, call it a partial-compound element ; as, "I understand he is 
young and capable" If it is a complex clause, call it a complex element ; 
as, "A teacher that grumbles when his work is heavy only makes it heavier." 



234 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

611. ((7) According to use, elements are Adjective, Ob- 
jective, Subjective, Adverbial, Attendant, and Connective. 

612. An Adjective Element is one that modifies a sub- 
stantive like an adjective. 

613. An Objective Element is one that is the object of a 
transitive verb. 

614. A Subjective Element is one used as the subject of 
a finite verb or of an infinitive. 

615. An Adverbial Element is one that modifies any- 
thing else than a noun or pronoun, or a verb as its subject 
or object. 

616. An Attendant Element is one that has a logical, but 
no grammatical, connection. 

"The sun having risen, we pursued our journey." In this sentence, 
The sun having risen is independent in its grammatical construction, 
but expresses the logical reason for pursuing the journey. 

We, while he spake, ceas'd not our onward road, 
Still passing through the wood ; for so I name 
Those spirits thick beset. — Dante. 

617. A Connective Element is one joining two parts of 
the sentence. It may be a conjunction, relative pronoun, 
conjunctive or relative adverb, conjunctive adjective, or 
preposition. 

618. (2)) According to base, elements are of the First 
Class, the Second Class, or the Third Class. 

619. An Element of the First Class is one whose base is 
a single word. 

"The furious animals ran rapidly away." All the elements of this 
sentence are of the first class. 

620. An Element of the Second Class is one whose base is 
a preposition and its object, or an infinitive 

The city of Indianapolis is on White Iiiver. lie tried to finish his 
work. 



ANALYSIS. 235 

621. Aii Element of the Third Class is one whose base is 
a subordinate sentence. 

I believe that he will do it. If you try, you will succeed. That the earth 
is spherical has been proved. 

622. Point out each element, tell what it modifies, and 
describe it : — 

(1) As to structure. 

(2) As to use. 

(3) As to base. 

(1) The merchant fulfilled his contract. 

(2) A man less diligent in business would have failed in the enterprise. 

(3) A man that is honest will be respected. 

(4) The children came with laugh and shout, and filled the halls with 
glee. 

(5) We all desire him to become a minister. 

(6) The money being furnished, he purchased the estate. 

(7) Twilight is weeping o'er the pensive rose. 

(8) While the robbers were plundering, she set fire to the house. 

(9) As we approached the top of the bill we saw the Indian wigwams. 
(10) You will please to speak so that we can hear you. 

CONNECTIVES. 

623. A Connective is any word that joins elements. 

624. There are two classes of connectives: Coordinate and 
Subordinate. 

625. A Coordinate Connective is one that joins elements of 
equal rank. It is always a coordinate conjunction; as, and, 
but, or, nor, etc. 

626. A Subordinate Connective is one that joins elements 
of unequal rank. 

It may be — 

(1) A subordinate conjunction. 

He will pay you if lie promised. We believe her because she is 
truthful. 



236 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(2) A relative pronoun. 

The boy that is truthful will always make friends. I had a dream, 
■which was not all a dream. The man with -whom you were walking is 
my cousin. 

(3) A relative conjunctive adverb. 

There may be a time when she will regret it. 

There is a land of pure delight, 
Where saints immortal reign. 

(4) An ordinary conjunctive adverb. 

Be merry while you may. Do as you are directed. Come when you 
are wanted. 

(5) A covj urn- tire adjective. (Very rare.) 
As is the labor so the reward should be. 



DIAGRAMMING. 



237 



627. 



DIAGRAMMING. 





Subject 1 Predicate 


<3 


Adj. el. 




Adj. el. 




&5 

©" 




Obj, el. S. Obj\el. 








P 






Adv. el. 


Adv. el. {infinitive,') 


















Snbj. el. 






Adj. (appositive 


el. 


1 










Subject. J Predicate. 






Connective {conj. adv.) 





628. The above blank diagram exposes at a glance all 
the essential principles of the straight-line system of dia- 
grammed analysis. It may be easily understood from the 
following — 

629. Explanation. — The importance of the subject and 
predicate of the principal sentence is indicated by the heavy 
line. They are written upon the same line and separated 
by a heavy vertical bar to show that they are of equal rank. 
All modifiers are placed below and on lighter lines to show 
that they are subordinate to the subject and predicate. 

To distinguish an objective element, let the line on which 
it is written be brought down from one that extends 
over the verb. The subject of an infinitive is written upon 
a line that is joined to one drawn under the infinitive. 
A conjunction is written in a break in the line. A con- 
nective that is also a modifier must be written so as to show 
both its uses. A dotted line indicates an appositive ele- 
ment ; a parenthesis, an independent element. A short 



238 



GKAMMAK OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



horizontal bar is used to separate a copula and an attribute, 
also to separate a preposition and its object. 

The relative position of elements in the sentence deter- 
mines the direction of their lines in the diagram: Word 
modifiers turn to the left when they precede the term 
modified; to the right when they follow it. Phrases 
(prepositional or infinitive) always turn to the right. 
Clauses turn to the right or left, as is most convenient. 



630. 



DIAGRAMS AND ANALYSES. 



(1) Sugar is sweet. 

(2) Truth is a virtue. 

(3) Grass grows. 

(4) The little children, eager for the story, gave all their attention to 
the speaker. 

(5) Smith, the merchant, is dead. 

(6) He and I went and we returned. 



631. Diagrammed Analysis. 

(1) 



(2) 



Sugar 



is— sweet. 



Truth 



(3) 
Grass | grows* 



is— virtue. 



(*) 



children 



gave 



attention 



to—sj>eaher. 



the 



for— story, 



(5) 
SumtJi. I is— fie ad. 



merchant, 



(Q 



He S I 



went 



and 

we returned. 



DIAGRAMMING. 239 

632. Written Analysis. 

(1) Sugar is sweet is a simple declarative sentence, of which Sugar is 
the simple subject, unmodified; and is siveet is the simple predicate, 
unmodified ; is the copula, and sweet the attribute. 

(2) Truth is a virtue is a simple declarative sentence, of which Truth 
is the simple subject, unmodified ; and is a virtue is the complex predi- 
cate ; is virtue, the simple predicate, is, the copula, unmodified ; and 
virtue, the attribute, modified by a, a simple adjective element of the 
first class. 

(3) Grass grows is a simple declarative sentence, of which Grass is 
the simple subject, and grows, the simple predicate. 

(4) Tlie little children, eager for the story, gave all their attention to 
the speaker, is a simple declarative sentence, of which The Utile children, 
eager for the story, is the complex subject, of which children is the simple 
subject, modified by the and little, two simple adjective elements of the 
first class ; also by eager for the story, a complex adjective element of the 
first class, of which eager is the base, modified by for the story, a complex 
adverbial element of the second class, of which for story is the base, of 
which story, the noun, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of 
the first class. 

(5) Smith, the merchant, is dead, is a simple declarative sentence, 
of which Smith, the merchant, is the complex subject, of which Smith is 
the simple subject, modified by the merchant, a complex adjective element 
of the first class ; merchant, the base, is modified by the, a simple adjec- 
tive element of the first class, of which sentence also is dead is the simple 
predicate, unmodified ; is the copula, and dead the attribute. 

(6) He and I went and we returned is a compound declarative sen- 
tence, of which He and I went is the leading, partial-compound, declara- 
tive sentence, of which He and I is the compound subject, and and the co- 
ordinate connective ; of which sentence, also, went is the simple predicate. 
Of the compound sentence, and is the coordinate connective, and we re- 
turned is the coordinate, simple, declarative sentence, of which we is the 
simple subject, and returned the simple predicate, both unmodified. 

633. Order of Analysis, Written or Oral. 

( (a) As to structure. 

(1) Describe the sentence j (&) Ag tQ uge> 

(2) Give the complex subject. 

(3) Give the simple subject. 

f (a) Structure. 

(4) Describe its modifiers as to j (&) Use. 

[ (c) Base. 



240 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(5) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers as above. 

(6) Give the complex predicate. 

(7) Give the simple predicate. 

f(a) Structure. 
(b) Use. 
(c) Base* 

(9) Give the base of each modifier and describe its modifiers as above. 
(a) The pupil should follow the above order with the utmost precision. 

In this way he will most readily learn to analyze, and at the same time 
receive one of the very best of drills in careful, accurate, rapid thinking ; 
while to attempt to analyze without following any particular order not 
only defeats the object so far as a lesson in grammar is concerned, but is 
also a very effective means of creating inattention in the class and of 
giving to the pupil himself a habit of carelessness in thought and expres- 
sion. 

634. Simple and compound sentences for analysis, illus- 
trating the use of adjectives and adverbs : — 

(1) Flowers bloom. 

(2) Dew sparkles. 

(3) Frogs leap. 

(4) Napoleon was banished. 

(5) Grammarians will differ. 

(6) It has been decided. 

(7) The angry wind is howling. 

(8) Little Arthur was murdered. 

(9) A beautiful marble statue was carved. 

(10) Those elegant Etruscan vases are broken. 

(11) We both wept. 

(12) We all consented. 

(13) He spoke eloquently. 

(14) She chattered incessantly. 

(15) They searched everywhere. 

(16) I shall know presently. 

(17) The deafening waves dash angrily. 

(18) The wounded soldier fought bravely. 

(19) Learning expands and elevates the mind. 

(20) The child ran forth and kissed its mother. 

(21) The earth and the moon are planets. 

(22) Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle were the most distinguished 
philosophers of antiquity. 

(23) Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous 
defeat. 



DIAGRAMMING. 



241 



(24) Peter Minutes traded with the Indians and bought the whole 
island of Manhattan for twenty-four dollars. 

(25) Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at 
San Salvador. 

635. Sentences illustrating the use of participles, adjec- 
tives, and phrases : — 



(1) Gambling is stealing. 



(i) 



Gambling I is — stealing. 



Gambling has the construction of a subject noun, and stealing that of 
a predicate noun. They are both participles. 

(2) Stooping down, I saw the wounded serpent, writhing in agony of 
death. 

(2) 



I I saw 



serpent, 



writhing 



vn — agony 



of — death. 

(3) A habit of sincerity in acknowledging faults is a guard against 
committing them. 

(3) 
habit \ is — guard 



a against — committing 



of —sincerity 



in — acknowledging 



faults 



(4) He comes attended by his friends. 

(4) 
He I comes — attended 



by —friends. 



242 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

[Being] attended is a passive participle with the construction of a 
predicate adjective. 

(5) I saw the man hung by the mob. 

This sentence is ambiguous, as it may mean either that I saw the man 
after the mob had hung him, or that I witnessed the execution. If the 
sentence conveys the first meaning, man is the object of saw, and [having 
been] hung is a transitive, passive participle in the present perfect tense, 
having the construction of an adjective limiting man. This would be the 
diagram : — 

(5) 



^ 



[having bee))] hung 



by — mob. 



636. Analysis. — (5) I saw the man hung by the mob is a simple de- 
clarative sentence, of which lis the simple subject unmodified ; of which 
sentence, also, saio the man hung by the mob, is the complex predicate ; 
saw is the simple predicate, modified by the man hung by the mob, a com- 
plex objective element of the first class, of which man, the base, is modi- 
fied by the, a simple adjective element of the first class, and by hung by 
the mob, a complex adjective element of the first class, of which [having 
been] hung, the base, is modified by by the mob, a complex adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class ; by mob is the base, mob, the noun, is modified 
by the, a simple adjective element of the first class. 

(a) But if the sentence means to say I witnessed the execution, then 
[to be] hung is a present, passive infinitive, and man is its subject in the 
objective case. The abridged clause, the man to be hung by the mob, 
would be the object of saw. 

(6) War having been declared, we all prepared to fight. 

(6) 
tve I prepared 



\all I 



to fight. 



having been declared, 



War having been declared is logically, but not grammatically, related 
to prepared. 



DIAGRAMMING. 243 

637. Analysis.' — War having been declared, ice all prepared to fight 
is a simple declarative sentence, etc. Prepared, the simple predicate, is 
modified by to fight, a simple adverbial element of the second class. It 
is logically modified also by war having been declared, which, grammat- 
ically, is a complex independent or attendant element of the first class, of 
which war, the base, is modified by having been declared, a simple adjec- 
tive element of the first class. 

War is a noun in the nominative case, subject of the participle 
having been declared, which has the construction of an adjective limiting 
war. 

638. Analyze orally and by diagram, giving particular 
attention to the italicized words. 

(1) On a grassy bank stood a tall, waving ash, sound to the very 
core. 

(2) God's balance, watched by angels, is hung across the sky. 

(3) Mistaking one for the other, they took him, a little fellow called 
Red Billy, for me. 

(4) There is no harm in children's playing by the roadside. 

(5) There is no harm in children playing by the roadside. 

(6) The pardon of the governor prevented his being hanged. 

(7) I saw a horse covered with a blanket. 

(8) Taking a madman's sword to prevent his doing mischief cannot 
be regarded as robbing him. 

(9) Scaling yonder peak, I saw an eagle wheeling near its brow. 

(10) All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 

(11) Her chief business was sauntering about the neighborhood and 
spending her time in idle gossip. 

(12) Ha ! laugh'st thou, Lochiel, my vision to scorn ? 

(13) We heard the rain beating upon the doorstep. 
(II) We saw the package opened by mistake. 

(15) Gambling is stealing. 

(16) Did you see the tree struck by lightning? 

(17) The horse hitched to the carriage was sold for a thousand dollars. 

(18) The burning of the capital was outrageous. 

(19) Have you not seen strong men weeping f 

(20) Having sold his residence in the city, the man moved to his 
farm near the lakes. 

(21) The general having been captured, the army was defeated. 

(22) The writer being a scholar is not doubted. 

(23) The writer's being a scholar is not doubted. 

(24) I never heard of that man running for office. 



244 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



(25) I never heard of that man's running for office. 

(26) The child stood weeping. 

(27) The dog came limping. 

(28) The philosopher sat buried in thought. 

(29) No one ever saw fat men heading a riot or herding together in 
turbulent mobs. 

(30) The bridge at Ashtabula giving way, the train fell into the river. 

(31) Spring comes robed in .silken green. 

(32) A word can send the crimson color hurrying to the cheek with 
many meanings. 

639. Infinitives and Subjective Elements. 

(1) To live is not the whole of life. 

(2) A desire to excel in any worthy work is commendable. 

(3) We are ready to go at any time. 

(4) It is impossible to see the sun at midnight. 

(5) He is too gentle to hurt a fly. 

(6) The birds are beginning to migrate. 

(7) William is yet to come. 

(8) She desired me to become a Mason. 

(9) For him to be found in such company is evidence of his guilt. 
(10) I believe for some men to tell the truth to be an impossibility. 



(i) 

To live I is — whole 




(2) 
desire I is — commendable. 



Ai 



any | 

(5) 
He | is — gentle 



worthy 



(4) 
It I is — impossible 



to 


see 1 




sun 




the \ 


at 


—midnight. 



DIAGRAMMING. 



245 



(B) 



birds J are beginning 

The | 



(7) 
William I is — to come. 



to migrate. 



(3) 

She | desired 



to become — Mason. 



A 



CFor) (9) 

to be found | is — evidence 




i 






of — guilt. 




in — company 


his 



(10) 



J I believe 



to be — impossibility. 



(For) men tne | 



(a) To live in (1) has the construction of a noun, subject of is. 

(6) To excel in (2) has the construction of an adjective limiting desire. 

(c) To go in (3) has the construction of an adverb limiting ready. 

(d) To see in (4) has the construction of a noun in apposition with it. 

(e) To hurt in (5) has the construction of an adverb of degree, limit- 
ing too. 

(/) To migrate in (6) has the construction of a noun, object of are 
beginning. 

(g) To come in (7) has the construction of a predicate adjective. 

(h) In (8) the clause, me to become a Mason, has the construction of 
a noun, object of desired. 

(i) For in (9) is an introductory expletive, and the clause, for him 
to be found in such company, has the construction of a noun, subject 
of is. 

(j) In (10), the clause, for some men to tell the truth to be an impos- 
sibility, has the construction of a noun, object of believe. The clause, for 
some men to tell the truth, has the construction of a noun in the objective 
case, subject of the infinitive to be. Men is in the objective case, subject 
of the infinitive to tell, and for is an introductory expletive. 



246 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

640. Analysis. — (8) She desired me to become a Mason is a simple 
declarative sentence, of which She is the simple subject unmodified ; of 
which sentence, also, desired me to become a Mason is the complex predi- 
cate, of which desired is the simple predicate, modified by me to become 
a Mason, a complex objective element of the second class. It is also a 
simple abridged sentence, of which to become Mason is the simple predi- 
cate, of which to become is the copula, modified by me, a simple subjective 
element of the first class ; Mason, the attribute, is modified by a, a simple 
adjective element of the first class. 

(10) For some men to tell the truth I believe to be an impossibility 
is a simple declarative sentence, of which / is the simple subject unmodi- 
fied. - Believe for some men to tell the truth to be an impossibility 
is the complex predicate, of which believe is the simple predicate, 
modified by for some men to tell the truth to be an impossibility, a com- 
plex objective element of the second class ; it is also a complex abridged 
sentence, of which to be impossibility is the simple predicate ; impossi- 
bility, the attribute, is modified by an, a simple adjective element of the 
first class ; and to be, the copula, is modified by For some men to tell the 
truth, a complex subjective element of the second class ; it is also a simple, 
abridged, subordinate sentence, of which to tell, the base, is modified by 
the truth, a complex objective element of the first class ; truth, the base, is 
modified by the, a simple adjective element of the first class. To tell 
is modified, also, by some men, a complex subjective element of the first 
class, of which men, the base, is modified by some, a simple adjective 
element of the first class. For is an introductory expletive. 

641. Diagram and analyze, giving special attention to the 
italicized words : — 

(1) These apples are not to be eaten. 

(2) He remained to assist in the work. 

(3) For you to become a grammarian will require much study. 

(4) It is hard work to plow. 

(5) He thinks it delightful to teach grammar. 

(6) My desire to teach is now satisfied. 

(7) My task to teach is pleasant. 

(8) I wish you to be a teacher, but I wish to be ;i preacher. 

(a) What is the case of the subject of (1) a finite verb, (2) an infini- 
tive, (3) a participle ? 

(b) In what case is the complement of a copulative verb ? 

(c) Name and illustrate three general uses infinitives and participles 
have in addition to their verbal use ? 



DIAGRAMMING. 247 

(d) The (6) and (7) illustrate the difference between an infinitive 
with the construction of an adjective and one with the construction of a 
noun in apposition, which sometimes troubles a beginner. When an in- 
finitive is in apposition, either it or the substantive it modifies may be 
omitted, leaving a sentence that expresses essentially the same thought ; 
as in (7), My task is pleasant, or, To teach is pleasant ; or the two terms 
may exchange places without changing the meaning ; as, To teach, my 
task, is pleasant. But in (6) desire and to teach do not mean the same 
thing; to teach merely designates which desire, — desire for teaching. It 
modifies desire, not like an appositive, but like an adjective. It therefore 
has the construction of an adjective. 

642. Analysis of Complex Sentences. 

(1) He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to mend. 

(2) He has lost the book that I had given to him. 

(3) When he had completed his task the boy went out to play. 

(4) He announced that the train had arrived. 

(5) That he is the thief is evident. 

(6) His objection was that the boy was too young. 

(7) It has been claimed that Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare's works. 

(8) She is taller than her sister. 

(9) It was so cold that the mercury froze. 

(10) The Indian knows the place where his friends are buried. 
(Tl) He demanded of them where Christ should be born. 

(12) As is the boy so will be the man. 

(13) We will work till Jesus comes. 

(14) These exercises are as profitable as they are interesting. 

(15) When my father and my mother forsake me, then the Lord will 
take me up. 

(16) Blucher arrived on the -field of Waterloo just as Wellington was 
meeting the last onslaught of Napoleon. 

(17) The wiser he grew the humbler he became. 

(18) I was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the reputation 
that he bore among his neighbors. 

(i) 



He 8 lacks 



time 



248 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



643. Analysis. — (1) He that lacks time to mourn lacks time to 
mend is a complex declarative sentence, of which He that lacks time to 
mourn is the complex subject ; He, the simple subject, is modified by 
that lacks time to mourn, a simple adjective element of the third class ; 
it is also a simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which that is the 
simple subject ; that is also a subordinate connective, joining the clause, 
that lacks time to mourn, to its antecedent, He; of which subordinate 
sentence, also, lacks time to mourn is the complex predicate, of which 
lacks is the simple predicate, modified by time to mourn, a complex ob- 
jective element of the first class, of which time, the base, is modified by 
to mourn, a simple adjective element of the second class ; of which prin- 
cipal sentence, also, lacks time to mend is the complex predicate, of 
which lacks, the simple predicate, is modified by time to mend, a com- 
plex objective element of the first class, of which time, the base, is modi- 
fied by to mourn, a simple adjective element of the second class. 

(2) 



He I has lost 



had given 



that 



644. Analysis. — Book is modified by that I had given to him, a 
simple adjective element of the third class ; it is also a simple declarative 
subordinate sentence, of which I is the simple subject, unmodified ; of 
which sentence, also, had given that to him is the complex predicate ; had 
given, the simple predicate, is modified by to him, a simple adverbial 
element of the second class ; also by that, a simple objective element of 
the first class ; it is also the subordinate connective, joining to its 
antecedent, book, the subordinate sentence, that I had given to him. 

(3) 
boy | went 



to play. 



he had co))i]}Ietrd 



DIAGRAMMING. 249 

645. Went is modified by when he had completed his task, a simple 
adverbial element of the third class ; it is also a simple, declarative, 
subordinate sentence, of which he is the simple subject ; of which sub- 
ordinate sentence, also, had completed his task when is the complex predi- 
cate ; had completed, the simple predicate, is modified by his task, a 
complex objective element of the first class, of which task, the base, is 
modified by his, a simple adjective element of the first class ; had com- 
pleted is modified also by when, a simple adverbial element of the first 
class ; it is also a subordinate connective, joining the clause, when he had 
completed his task, to the verb, went. 



He I announced 



jthaC) train 



had arrived. 



646. Analysis. — He announced that the train had arrived is a com- 
plex declarative sentence, of which He is the simple subject, unmodified ; 
of which sentence, also, announced that the train had arrived is the com- 
plex predicate, of which announced is the simple predicate, modified by 
that the train had arrived, a simple objective element of the third class ; it 
is also a simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which that is the 
introductory expletive, and the train is the complex subject, of which 
train, the simple subject, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of 
the first class ; of which subordinate sentence, also, had arrived is the 
simple predicate, unmodified. 

(a) A substantive clause needs no connective. 

(5) 
{That) he \ is-^tJiief I is-^evidenf* 



647. Analysis. — That he is the thief is evident is a complex declara- 
tive sentence, of which That he is the thief is the simple subject. It is 
also a simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which That is the 
introductory expletive, he the simple subject, and is the thief is the com- 
plex predicate, of which is thief is the simple predicate, is the copula, 
unmodified, and thief, the attribute, modified by the, a simple adjective 
element of the first class. Of the principal sentence, is evident is the 
simple predicate, of which is is the copula and evident the attribute. 



250 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



(6) 



{that) 



objection \ was-boi/ was— young, 



648. Analysis. — Was that the boy was too young is the simple predi- 
cate, of which was is the copula, and that the boy icas too young the 
attribute ; it is also a simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which 
that is the introductory expletive, and the boy, the complex subject ; &oy, 
the simple subject, is modified by the, a simple adjective element of the first 
class ; of which subordinate sentence, also, teas too young is the complex 
predicate, was young is the simple predicate, was the copula, unmodified, 
and young the attribute, modified by too, a simple adverbial element of 
the first class. 

(7) 
It | has been claimed 



(that) Ijord Bacon wrote 



SIiaTcesjieare's \ 

649. Analysis. — This is a complex declarative sentence, of which 
It that Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare' 1 s works is the complex subject, of 
which It, the simple subject, is modified by that Lord Bacon wrote Shake- 
speare's works, a simple adjective element of the third class ; it is also a 
simple, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which that is the introduc- 
tory expletive, Lord Bacon the simple subject, etc. 

(a) That Lord Bacon wrote Shakespeare's works is a substantive clause 
in apposition with it. 



(8) 
She I is -'taller 



tli an 
sister. \ Qs-taTt} 



DIAGRAMMING. 



251 



650. Analysis. — Taller is modified by than her sister is tall, a simple 
adverbial element of tbe third class ; it is also a simple, declarative, sub- 
ordinate sentence, of which than is the connective, etc. 



(9) 
It I tvas—cold 



(10) 



froze. 



Indian 


1 knows 






The\ 


I 


place 




the 


1 








friend~s\ are ouviea, 




his A 
where 





(a) So in (9) is an adverb of degree, modified by that the mercury 
froze, a simple adverbial element of the third class. 

(6) Place in (10) is modified by where his friends are buried, a simple 
adjective element of the third class. 

(c) Where is a relative conjunctive adverb ; it limits are buried and 
joins its clause to the noun place. 



(ii) 



He I demanded 



of— them 



shonffi, oq bonn. 



(a) Demanded is modified by where Christ should be born, a simple 
objective element of the third class ; it is also a simple, indirect-interroga- 
tive, or responsive, subordinate sentence, etc. 

(&) Where is a simple, interrogative adverb, but not a connective. 
No connective is needed for a substantive clause. It may be well to 
remember that no interrogative word is ever a connective. 



252 



GKAMMAK OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



(12) 
vn an . I ufI7 be— so 



boy 



(a) As ... so are correlative, or responsive, indefinite, descriptive, 
predicate adjectives. They cannot be regarded as adverbs, for is, in 
either sentence, is copulative, not attributive. 

(6) Is so is the predicate of the principal sentence, is, the copula, and 
so, the attribute. So is modified by As is the boy, a simple adverbial 
element of the third class, of which is As is the simple predicate, is, the 
copula, and As, the attribute. As is also the subordinate connective, 
joining its subordinate sentence to so. 



(13) 
We I tviTZ work 



till— Jesus cornea. 



(a) Will work is modified by till Jesus comes, a simple adverbial 
element of the second class, of which till Jesus comes is the ba.se, till, the 
preposition, and Jesus comes, the object; it is also a simple, declarative, 
subordinate sentence, of which Jesus is the simple subject, and comes the 
simple predicate. 

(6) Till must not be parsed as a conjunctive adverb in such sentences. 



(14) 



exercises 


1 ore— profitable 




These 




1 

as 












they 


are— interesting. 






as 








DIAGRAMMING. 



253 



(a) As ... as are correlative or responsive adverbs of degree. First as 
is a simple adverb, and limits profitable. The second as is a conjunctive 
adverb ; it limits interesting and joins its subordinate sentence to the first as. 

(15) 



Lord 


will take 


me 


a 
s 

VTh 


mother 




the 1 


1 

then 








up. 
















father 
my\ 


j forsake 




my 




i 














en 







| me, 



(a) Then is modified by When my father and my mother forsake me, a 
partial-compound, adverbial element of the third class ; it is also a partial- 
compound, declarative, subordinate sentence, of which my father and my 
mother is the compound, complex subject, of which my father is the first 
member ; father, the base, is modified by my, a simple adjective element 
of the first class ; my mother is the second member, of which mother, the 
base, is modified by my, a simple adjective element of the first class, etc. 

(5) When . . . then are correlative or responsive adverbs of time. 
When is a conjunctive adverb ; it limits forsake, and joins its subordinate 
sentence to then, which is a simple adverb and limits will take. 

(16) 

nerX arM 



on— field 



the 



\ of— Waterloo 



WeTTCngt'on \ was meeting 



I onslaught 



last 
the 



I of—NapoteoTU 



Just 



254 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



(a) As is a conjunctive adverb of time ; it limits was meeting, and 
joins its subordinate sentence to arrived. 

(b) Just is a simple adverb of degree, and limits as. 

(17) 
he \beca me,— h u m bier 



7ie\ grew.— wiser 



(a) Tbe first the is a conjunctive adverb of degree ; it limits iciser, and 
joins its subordinate sentence to the second the. 

(6) The second the is a simple adverb of degree, and limits humidor. 
Humbler and wiser are predicate adjectives ; became and grew, copulative 
verbs. The meaning is, He became humbler to the degree to which he grew 



(18) 
I I was grieved 



l\ heard 






' 1 


he 


had obtained 


when 












ftmti 





reputation 



he bore 




1 


among— neighbors. 




his 






that 





(a) When is a conjunctive adverb of time ; it limits heard, and joins 
its subordinate sentence to was grieved. 

(5) How is an indirect interrogative or responsive adverb of manner, 
limiting had obtained. How is not a connective. 

(c) That is a relative pronoun, used as the object of bore ; it joins its 
clause to reputation. 

651. Analysis. — I was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the 
reputation that he bore among his neighbors is a complex declarative 



DIAGRAMMING. 255 

sentence, of which I is the simple subject, unmodified ; of which sentence, 
was grieved when I heard how he had obtained the reputation that he bore 
among his neighbors is the complex predicate, of which was grieved is 
the simple predicate, modified by when I heard how he had obtained the 
reputation that he bore among his neighbors, a complex adverbial element 
of the third class ; it is also' a complex, declarative, subordinate sentence, 
of which i" is the simple subject, unmodified ; of which subordinate sen- 
tence, also, heard when how he had obtained the reputation that he bore 
among his neighbors is the complex predicate, of which heard is the simple 
predicate, modified by when, a simple adverbial element of the first class ; 
it is also the subordinate connective, joining the complex adverbial clause 
to was grieved; heard is modified, also, by how he had obtained the 
reputation that he bore among his neighbors, a complex objective element 
of the third class ; it is also a complex, indirect-interrogative, subordinate 
sentence, of which he is the" simple subject, unmodified ; of which subor- 
dinate sentence, also, had obtained how the reputation that he bore among 
his neighbors is the complex predicate, of which had obtained is the simple 
predicate, modified by how, a simple adverbial element of the first class, 
also by the reputation that he bore among his neighbors, a complex objec- 
tive element of the first class ; reputation, the base, is modified by the, a 
simple adjective element of the first class, also by that he bore among his 
neighbors, a simple adjective element of the third class ; it is also a simple, 
declarative, subordinate sentence, of which he is the simple subject, 
unmodified, of which sentence, also, bore that among his neighbors is the 
complex predicate, of which bore is the simple predicate, modified by 
that, a simple objective element of the first class ; it is also the connec- 
tive, joining its clause, that he bore among his neighbors, to reputation ; 
bore is modified, also, by among his neighbors, a complex adverbial ele- 
ment of the second class, of which among neighbors is the base, and 
neighbors, the noun, is modified by his, a simple adjective element of the 
first class. 



256 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



ABRIDGMENT. 

652. A Simple Sentence may be changed to one that is 
complex by expanding any one of its words or phrases into 
a proposition. Tims, " A wise man will always be sought 
by those desiring to learn" is a simple sentence ; but if 
the word wise, and the phrase desiring to learn, be ex- 
panded into propositions, we shall have the complex sen- 
tence, " A man that is wise will always be sought by those 
that desire to learn" which expresses the same thought. 

653. Expansion. — This process may be called expansion. 

654. A Complex Sentence may be changed to one that 
is simple by contracting its subordinate propositions into 
words or phrases. Thus, " Dr. Franklin, who was the 
projector of many useful institutions, was bred a printer," 
"Because some truths are difficult of comprehension, the 
weak reject them," " He came that he might see the distin- 
guished statesman" are complex sentences ; but we may 
make them simple by contracting their subordinate 
clauses : " Dr. Franklin, the projector of many useful in- 
stitutions, was bred a printer," " Some truths being difficult 
of comprehension, the weak reject them," " He came to see 
the distinguished statesman" 

655. Abridgment. — Tlie process by which subordinate 
clauses are changed into equivalent words or phrases is 
called abridgment. 

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ABRIDGMENT/ 

656. (1) The Abridged Part has the same construction 
in the simple sentence as the clause in the complex sen- 
tence ; that is, it is either substantive, adjective, or ad- 
verbial. 



ABRIDGMENT. 257 

(a) The best way to determine the construction of a clause is to 
observe the construction of the word or phrase into which it may be 
abridged. And to determine the construction of a word or phrase, ob- 
serve the construction of the clause into which it may be expanded. 

657. (2) It will be observed from the example above 
that it is only the Principal Elements (subject and predicate) 
that are changed in abridging a clause. The subordi- 
nate elements are joined to the abridged form without 
alteration. 

658. Kinds of Abridgment. — Since the thought of a 
clause may be expressed by a word or phrase, there arise 
two kinds of abridgment : Word Abridgment and Phrase 
Abridgment. 

659. The Basis of a word abridgment may be a noun, an 
adjective, or a participle, as may be seen from abridging 
the following : " Jones, iv ho ivas our doctor, died." " The 
boy that is studious will learn." "The man, who is play- 
ing with the children, is my uncle." 

(a) Clauses denoting time or reason are abridged by using participles 
and their subjects absolutely. Thus, "When the sun had risen we pur- 
sued our journey," and " We were in time because the train was late," 
are the same in thought as "The sun having risen, we pursued our jour- 
ney," and " The train being late, we were in time." 

660. The Basis of a phrase abridgment may be a preposi- 
tional or an infinitive phrase. Thus, "A man that is 
generous," "A man of generosity ;" and "He lied that he 
might escape punishment," "He lied to escape punishment ." 

(a) The infinitive phrase is employed chiefly to abridge clauses 
introduced by that. 

(b) The infinitive phrase is used also to abridge certain adjective 
clauses introduced by a preposition and a relative, as ' ' Send me some 
money with which I may buy my dinner'''' = " Send me some money with 
which to buy my dinner." "For which to strive," " At which to shoot," 
" On which to depend," etc., are contractions or abridgments in which is 
found a peculiar use of the relative, that is, it does not join to its ante- 



258 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

cedent a limiting clause. The relative in such cases relates or refers to 
its antecedent, but does not join anything to it ; for the infinitive limits 
the antecedent of the relative, and an infinitive does not require a con- 
nective to join it to the word it limits. The relative itself is the object in 
the prepositional phrase that limits the infinitive as an adverbial element, 
(c) Certain indirect interrogative clauses used as substantives are 
abridged by omitting the subject, changing the predicate to an infinitive, 
and placing before it the interrogative word; as, ''I know not whom I 
may ask" = "I know not whom to ask." In the same manner we have 
what to do, where to look, whom to send, when to begin, how to proceed, 
etc. But it must be understood that the words whom, what, whi re, uohen y 
how, etc., are not connectives either in the expanded or in the abridged 
sentence, for no interrogative word is ever a connective. 



CASE OP SUBJECT IN ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

661. If the subject of a subordinate clause refers to the 
same as the subject of the principal clause, it is not re- 
tained in the abridgment. 

Ex. — " I desire that I may learn " = " I desire to learn." (See Rules 
I and II.) ' 

662. When the subject of the subordinate clause does 
not refer to the same as the subject of the principal clause, 
it is retained in the abridgment, and is in the nominative 
absolute case, the possessive, or the objective ; as : — 

" Wlien shame is lost, all virtue is gone" = " Shame being lost, all 
virtue is gone." "I heard that he had stolen the money = "I heard of 
his stealing the money." "I desire that he be a merchant" = I desire 
him to be a merchant." (See Rules I, II, and III.) 



CASE OF COMPLEMENT IN ABRIDGED PROPOSITIONS. 

663. The complement of a copulative verb is either an 
adjective or a noun, or some expression so used. 

664. If it is an adjective, it will remain a predicate 
adjective and modify the subject of the verb in the 
abridged proposition. 



ABRIDGMENT. 259 

665. If it is a noun or pronoun, its case will always be 
governed by Rule VI : A noun or pronoun used as the 
complement of a copulative verb is in the same case as its 
subject. Exception. — When the subject of a copulative 
participle is possessive, the complement is nominative. 



(a) Illustration of Rule. — " If I were she," " I wished to be she." 
She in either sentence is nominative, so is I, the subject. " He wished 
me to be her." lie, the subject of to be, is objective, and her] the comple- 
ment, is objective. " He being a scholar, we asked him his opinion." He, 
the subject of the participle, is in the nominative absolute, and scholar, 
the complement, is in the same case. If a pronoun should be used in the 
same construction as scholar, its form would show it to be either nomina- 
tive or nominative absolute ; and since no reason appears for supposing 
this an exception to the general rule stated above, the complements of all 
such participles are in the nominative absolute case. 

(6) In abridging certain adjective clauses, like " Here is a man that is 
called a thief," the relative is dropped, and nothing appears in the 
abridged form to take its place ; but the noun that is the complement is 
put in the same case as the word upon which the clause depends. Thus, 
the above sentence abridged would read : " Here is a man called a thief." 
Man is in the nominative case, and thief is also nominative. This, 
however, is no exception to Rule VI, for man, the subject of is, is also 
the subject of called. A substantive may be the subject both of a finite 
and an in-finite verb in the same sentence ; or it may be the object of a 
verb or preposition and the subject of a participle in the same sentence. 
I am aware that we have good authority opposing the last statement, but 
I am unable to understand why a noun may not be the object of one verb 
and the subject of another. And it is certainly not inconsistent with the 
reality of the thought to be conveyed ; for a man may be at the same time 
the object or recipient of one action and the agent of another. For exam- 
ple, I may strike a thief while he is taking my money, which may be 
expressed, " I struck the thief taking my money." The authors that say 
that " a word cannot be both the object of one verb and the subject of 
another," say also that "every participle must have a subject either 
expressed or understood," which statements are inconsistent. In the 
above sentence, if thief is not the subject of taking, it has no subject, 
for no word can be supplied for a subject without destroying the sentence. 
A little reasoning will make it clear that thief is both the object of struck 
and the subject of taking ; for, if the thief could be consulted in the mat- 
ter, he would be found to entertain no doubts about being the identical 



260 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

object that was struck, and the only reason that I could give for 
making him the object of the striking is that he was the agent of the 
taking. 

(c) But while it is evident that a noun or pronoun may be found in two 
constructions, it must be remembered that it can be governed by but one 
of them. For example, in the sentence, "He wants to learn," He is 
nominative, because it is the subject of the finite verb wants, not because 
it is the subject of the infinitive to learn. And in the sentence, " I saw a 
man called a thief," man is both the object of saw and the subject of 
called, but is objective only because it is the object of saw. But thief, 
the complement of called, is objective to agree in case with man, the 
subject of called. 

(d) Explanation of Exception. — " That he is a scholar has never 
been questioned." In this, the subject of the subordinate clause is he, and 
the complement is scholar, both in the nominative case. But the clause 
is abridged by dropping that, changing the finite verb is to the participle 
being, changing the nominative he to the possessive his, and leaving 
scholar unchanged. Then we have, " His being a scholar has never been 
questioned." His, the subject of being, is evidently possessive; but 
■why is scholar, the complement, nominative ? 

(1) Scholar was nominative before the clause was abridged. 

(2) No change has taken place in the process of abridgment to cause 
any change in its case, unless it should follow the general rule and 
become possessive when the subject becomes possessive. 

(3) It is not possessive, for it does not have the possessive sign, neither 
does it denote possession. 

(4) Therefore, scholar, or the complement in all such cases, is nomi- 
native. 

666. Diagram and analyze, giving particular attention to 
italicized ivords : — 

(1) The belief that stars are suns is held by astronomers. 

(2) There is no need that she be present. 

(3) The opinion that the soulis immortal has been almost universally 
entertained. 

(4) Let it be understood that I will pursue this course no longer. 

(5) The man that cannot put fire into his speeches should put his 
speeches into the fire. 

(6) The sumptuous cities that have lighted the world since the be- 
ginning of time are now beheld only in the pictures of the historian of 
the past. 



ABRIDGMENT. 261 

(7) The smallest dewdrop that lies on the meadow at night has a 
star sleeping in its bosom. 

(8) We should endeavor to secure the friendship of the Being that 
holds in His hands the reins of the universe. 

(9) Black, smoking ruins marked the place that had been the 
habitation of her children. 

(10) Nature never did betray the heart that loved her. 

(11) This is the house that Jack built. 

(12) Webster was a man that the country will remember with pride. 

(13) There are occasions in life in which a great mind will live years 
of rapt enjoyment in a moment. 

(14) The challenge to combat was given by touching the shield of the 
knight whom the challenger wished to encounter. 

(15) Not a single region that the Indians can now call their own do 
the winds of the Atlantic fan. 

(16) The atrocious crime of being a young man, which the honorable 
gentleman has with such spirit of decency charged upon me, I shall 
attempt neither to palliate nor to deny. 

(17) The jingling of the guineas helps the hurt that honor feels. 

(18) It is not always easy to make one's self just what one wishes 
to be. 

(19) He, beneath whose proud footstep Europe trembled, became a 
prisoner on the rock -bound isle of St. Helena. 

(20) God seems to have made him what he was. 

(21) A has three times as much money as B. 

(22) He told me what I never heard of before. 

(23) We are here to hear what you shall say. 

(24) Infidelity gives nothing in return for what it takes away. 

(25) The thief refused to divide what he had stolen. 

(26) Such as are virtuous are happy. 

(27) As many as came were satisfied. 

(28) The son has the same indications as his father. 

(29) WJioever wins may laugh. 

(30) Whatever purifies the heart also fortifies it. 

(31) Whoever seeks the good of others will himself be blest. 

(32) He threatened to shoot whoever tried to stop him. 

(33) Toward night the schoolmaster walked over to the cottage where 
his little friend lay sick. 

(34) There was a time when I was free to roam. 

(35) Youth is the time when the seeds of character are sown. 

(36) It is the hour when lovers' vows 
Seem sweet in every whispered word. 



262 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(37) At midnight, in his guarded tent, 

The Turk lay dreaming of the hour 
When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 

(38) Deep in the wave is a coral grove 

Where the purple mullet and the gold-fish rove. 

(39) There is a land of pure delight, 
Where saints immortal reign. 

(40) Not a soldier discharged his farewell shot 
O'er the grave where our hero we buried. 

(41) And all the air a solemn stillness holds, 

Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight. 

(42) She has sent for the lady she believed to be a governess. 

(43) I knew the man, whom the general appointed captain. 

(44) I saw the man, who w T e believed was sick. 

(45) The boy closed the shutters, ivhich darkened the room. 

(46) He reached the station just as the train was starting. 

(47) Gather roses while they bloom. 

(48) Smile whenever you can. 

(49) While there is life there is hope. 

(50) The ship sailed before the sun rose. 

(51) You may wait till the train arrives. 

(52) You cannot reap until after you sow. 

(53) Improve each shining moment as it flies. 

(54) He has been here ever since his brother came. 

(55) Oft as the morning dawns should gratitude ascend. 

(56) He was just about to start when I called him back. 

(57) She has not been here since you came. 

(58) When I look upon the tombs of the great every emotion of envy 
dies within me. 

(59) Knowledge and timber should not be used much till they are 
seasoned. 

(60) On Linden, when the sun was low, 
All bloodless lay the untrodden snow. 

(61) Oh, what a tangled web we weave 
When first we practise to deceive ! 

(62) He sleeps wherever night overtakes him. 

(63) He builds a palace of ice where the torrents fall. 

(64) Where there 's a will there" 1 s a way. 

(65) As far as the east is from the west, so far hath He removed 
our transgressions from us. 



ABRIDGMENT. 263 

(66) Man cannot act a more perfidious part than to use his utmost 
efforts to obtain confidence in order to deceive. 

(67) No axe had levelled the giant progeny of the crowded grove in 
which the fantastic forms of withered limbs that had been blasted and 
riven by lightning contrasted strangely with the verdant freshness of a 
younger growth of branches. 

(68) Whilst the authors of all these evils were idly and stupidly gaz- 
ing on this menacing meteor, which blackened their horizon, it suddenly 
burst, and poured down the whole of its contents upon the plains of the 
Carnatic. 

(69) God, by whose kindness we live, whom we worship, and toho cre- 
ated all things, is eternal. 

(70) I knew why he was sent there, how he is to manage, when he is 
to leave, where he is to go next, and who is to return home with him. 

(71) When misfortune comes, when the first prospects fade away, and 
when on either hand a listless desert stretches away to the sky, then do 
we realize true friendship. 

(72) The world and affairs have shown me that one half of history is 
loose conjecture, and much of the rest is the writer's opinion. — Wendell 
Phillips. 

(73) On the bosom of a river, 

Where the sun unloosed his quiver, 

And the starlight streamed forever, 

Sailed a vessel, light and free. 

(74) Once again the Greeks arise, 

As in their country's noblest hours. 

667. Discuss the italicized words. Diagram and analyze 
the sentences, giving special attention to the clauses. 

(1) The sun was now resting his huge disk upon the edge of the level 
ocean. 

(2) The heavens declare the glory of God, and the firmament showeth 
his handiwork. 

(3) The howling of the wolf and the shrill screaming of the panther 
were mingled in nightly concert with the war-whoop of the savages. 

(4) We ought not to sacrifice the sentiments of the soul to gratify the 
appetites of the body. 

(5) You or he is in fault. 

(6) If spring has no blossoms autumn will have no fruit. 

(7) The man that neglects his business will soon be without business. 

(8) He reads whatever is instructive. 

(9) And all our knowledge is ourselves to know.. 



264 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(10) Milton has fine descriptions of morning, but not so many as 
Shakespeare. 

(11) The woods are hashed, the waters rest, 

The lake is dark and still. 

(12) The king to Oxford sent a troop of horse; 
The tories own no argument but force. 

(13) The bounding steed you pompously bestride, 
Shares with his lord the pleasure and the pride. 

(14) I told you who he was. 

(15) Aristotle tells us that a statue lies buried in a block of marble. 

(16) Tell me not, in mournful numbers, 

Life is but an empty dream. 

(17) He looks as if tired. 

(18) She is as hateful as ever. 

(19) Good morning, gentlemen. 

(20) Many thanks for your kindness. 

(21) As night to stars, woe lustre gives to man. 

(22) Favors to none, to all she smiles extends ; 
Oft she rejects, but never once offends. 

(23) Maud Muller on a summer's day 
Raked the meadows sweet with hay. 

(24) For this he shares a felon's cell, 
The fittest earthly type of hell. 

(25) Liberty taught Demosthenes eloquence. 

(26) The pole was six feet long. 

(27) The snow was a foot deep. 

(28) They painted the house white. 

(29) She is without a home. 

(30) He made the axe sharp. 

(31) It is possible that we are wrong. 

(32) Let it be understood that I will pursue this course no longer. 

(33) The characteristic peculiarity of the Pilgrim's Progress is thai it 
is the only work of the kind that possesses a strong human interest. 

(34) Breathes there a man with soul so dead, 
Who never to himself hath said, 

This is my own, my native land ? 

(35) III fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, 

Where wealth accumulates and men decay. 

(36) Poets lose half the praise they would have got 

Were it but known what they discreetly blot. 



ABRIDGMENT. 265 

(37) I have observed that in all ages women have been more care- 
ful than men to adorn the part of the bead that we generally call the 
outside. 

(38) How long was it before the man came to ? About three-quarters 
of an hour. 

(39) The end why God has ordained faith is that his free grace might 
be glorified. 

(40) But the Son of Man hath not where to lay his head. 

(41) For what shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and 
lose bis own soul ? 

(42) The alarmed colonists believed that the yells of the savages min- 
gled with every fitful gust of wind that issued from the interminable for- 
ests of the West. 

(43) From beneath the flap of an enormous pocket of a soiled vest of 
embossed silk, heavily ornamented with tarnished silver lace, projected an 
instrument, which, from being seen in such martial company, might have 
been easily mistaken for some mischievous implement of war. 

(44) The fashion plates of the magazines bear no striking resemblance 
to the humanity that we meet in the street. 

(45) A proper description of the habit of chewing tobacco would ex- 
haust all the filthy adjectives of the language, and spoil the adjectives 
themselves for further use. 

(46) Did it ever occur to you what you are, what you were made for, 
and whither you are going ? 

(47) One of the greatest benefits to be reaped from great financial 
disasters is the saving of a large crop of young men. 

(48) Let no man know by your dress what your business is. 

(49) You will receive all sorts of the most excellent advice, but you 
must remember that, if you follow it, and it leads you into a profession 
that starves you, those that gave you the advice never feel bound to give 
you any money. 

(50) You are worth to yourself what you are capable of enjoying ; you 
are worth to society the happiness you are capable of imparting. 

(51) The Indian knows where his friends are buried. 

(52) We know not when his life departed. 

(53) I heard why he declined the office. 

(54) How you obtained the money so soon is a mystery to me. 

(55) That the man confessed his guilt when no evidence was found 
against him surprised the court. 

(56) When he gave the fatal blow is a matter of uncertainty. 

(57) Where he concealed the body is a subject that is much discussed. 

(58) The decision was that the prisoner was guilty. 

(59) The general opinion is that Morgan was murdered. 



266 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

(60) It is surprising that you care so little for the improvement of 
your mind. 

(61) The question, Are we a nation ? is now answered. 

(62) Bursts the moon through glade and greenwood, 

Soft the herald zephyrs play, 

And the waving birches sprinkle 

Sweetest incense on our way. 

(63) I hear that the young prince is an excellent scholar. 

(64) To see you here on such a day surprises me. 

(65) Animals know who love them. 

(66) "We know whom we worship. 

(67) Blessed is the man whose God is the Lord. 

(68) He accepts what others reject. 

(69) After denying the charge he withdrew in dignified displeasure. 

(70) After the sun rose we continued our march. 

(71) Many a despicable wretch lies under a marble monument deco- 
rated with a flattering epitaph. 

(72) When Dante stood before the gates of Hell, he read over a portal's 
lofty arch the awful inscription : All hope abandon, ye who enter here. 

668. Sentences from Pope's Essay on Criticism. 

i. 
'Tis with our judgments as our watches, none 
Go just alike, yet each believes his own. 

II. 

In poets as true genius is but rare, 
True taste as seldom is the critic's share. 



Some are bewildered in the maze of schools, 
And some made coxcombs nature meant but fools. 

IV. 

Some have at first for wits, then poets, passed, 
Turned critics next, and proved plain fools at last. 

V. 

Nature to all things fixed the limits fit, 

And wisely curbed proud man's pretending wit. 

VI. 

Where beams of warm imagination play, 
The memory's soft figures melt away. 



SELECTIONS. 267 

VII. 

Hear how learned Greece her useful rules indites, 
When to repress, and when indulge our flights. 

VIII. 

Be Homer's works your study and delight, 
Head them by day and meditate by night. 

IX. 

Of all the causes which conspire to blind 
Man's erring judgment, and misguide the mind, 
What the weak head with strongest bias rules, 
Is pride, the never-failing vice of fools. 

X. 

Trust not yourself ; but your defects to know, 
Make use of every friend — and every foe. 

XI. 

A little learning is a dangerous thing ; 
Drink deep, or taste not the Pierian spring : 
There shallow draughts intoxicate the brain, 
And drinking largely sobers us again. 

XII. 

A perfect judge will read a work of wit 
With the same spirit that its author writ. 

XIII. 

Whoever thinks a faultless piece to see, 
Thinks what ne'er was, nor is, nor e'er shall be. 

XIV. 

Poets, like painters, thus, unskilled to trace 
The naked nature and the living grace, 
With gold and jewels cover every part, 
And hide with ornaments their want of art. 

XV. 

But true expression, like the unchanging sun, 
Clears and improves whate'er it shines upon ; 
It gilds all objects, but it alters none. 



268 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



XVI. 

Some by old words to fame have made pretence, 
Ancients in phrase, mere moderns in their sense, 
Such labored nothings, in so strange a style, 
Amaze the unlearned, and make the learned smile. 

XVII. 

Be not the first by whom the new are tried, 
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside. 



True ease in writing comes from art, not chance, 
As those move easiest who have learned to dance. 



We think our fathers fools, so wise we grow ; 
Our wiser sons, no doubt, will think us so. 

XX. 

Some valuing those of their own side or mind, 
Still make themselves the measure of mankind : 
Fondly we think we honor merit then, 
When we but praise ourselves in other men. 

XXI. 

When first that sun too powerful beams displays, 
It draws up vapors which obscure its rays. 



Be thou the first true merit to befriend ; 

His praise is lost, who stays till all commend. 



All seems infected that the infected spy, 
As all looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 

669. Sentences from Pope's Essay on Man. 



Awake, my St. John ! leave all meaner things 
To low ambition, and the pride of kings. 



SELECTIONS. 269 

II. 

Let us, since life can little more supply 

Than just to look about us and to die, 

Expatiate free o'er all this scene of man ; 

A mighty maze ! but not without a plan : 

A wild, where weeds and flowers promiscuous shoot, 

Or garden, tempting with forbidden fruit. 

III. 

Say first, of God above, or man below, 

What can we reason but from what we know ? 



Of man, what see we but his station here, 
From which to reason, or to which refer ? 



Through worlds unnumbered though the God be known, 
'Tis ours to trace him only in our own. 

VI. 

He, who through vast immensity can pierce, 
See worlds on worlds compose one universe, 
Observe how system into system runs, 
What other planets circle other suns, 
What varied being peoples every star, 
May tell why heaven has made us as we are. 

VII. 

When the proud steed shall know why man restrains 
His fiery course, or drives him o'er the plain ; 
When the dull ox, why now he breaks the clod, 
Is now a victim, and now Egypt's God ; 
Then shall man's pride and dulness comprehend 
His actions', passions', being's, use and end; 
Why doing, suffering, checked, impelled ; and why 
This hour a slave, the next a deity. 

VIII. 
Heaven from all creatures hides the book of Fate, 
All but the page prescribed their present state : 
From brutes what men, from men what spirits know ; 
Or who could suffer being here below ? 



270 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



IX. 

But errs not nature from this gracious end, 
From burning suns when livid deaths descend, 
When earthquakes swallow, or when tempests sweep 
Towns to one grave, whole nations to the deep ? 

X. 

As much that end a constant course requires 
Of showers and sunshine, as of man's desires ; 
As much eternal springs, and cloudless skies, 
As men forever temperate, calm, and wise. 

XI. 

Shall he alone, whom rational we call, 

Be pleased with nothing, if not blessed with all ? 

XII. 

Why has not man a microscopic eye ? 
For this plain reason, man is not a fly. 

XIII. 

If nature thundered in his opening ears, 
And stunned him with the music of the spheres, 
How would he wish that heaven had left him still » 
The whispering zephyr, and the purling rill ! 

XIV. 

Who finds not Providence all good and wise, 
Alike in what it gives, and what denies ? 

XV. 

And, if each system in gradation roll, 
Alike essential to the amazing whole ; 
The least confusion but in one, not all 
That system only, but the whole must fall. 

XVI. 

All are but parts of one stupendous whole, 
Whose body nature is, and God the soul. 

XVII. 
Know then thyself, presume not God to scan ; 
The proper study of mankind is Man. 



SELECTIONS. 271 



Could he whose rules the rapid comet bind, 
Describe, or fix one movement of his mind ? 

XIX. 

Two principles in human nature reign — 
Self-love to urge, and reason to restrain ; 
Nor this a good, nor that a bad, we call ; 
Each works its end, to move or govern all ; 
And, to their proper operation, still 
Ascribe all good ; to their improper, ill. 

XX. 

Self-love, the spring of motion, acts the soul ; 
Eeason's comparing balance rules the whole. 

XXI. 

Modes of self-love the passions we may call ; 
'Tis real good, or seeming, moves them all. 

XXII. 

As fruits ungrateful to the planter's care, 
On savage stalks inserted, learn to bear, 
The surest virtues thus from passions shoot, 
Wild nature's vigor working at their root. 

XXIII. 
Vice is a monster of so frightful mien, 
As, to be hated, needs but to be seen ; 
Yet seen too oft ; familiar with her face, 
We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 



670. Selections from Cary's Dante's Inferno. 

i. 

In the midway of this our mortal life, 

I found me in a gloomy wood, astray 

Gone from the path direct : and e'en to tell 

It were no easy task, how savage wild 

That forest, how robust and rough its growth, 

Which to remember only, my dismay 

Renews, in bitterness not far from death. — Line 1, canto 1. 



272 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



II. 

Yet to discourse of what there good befell, 

All else will I relate discovered there. — Line 8. 

III. 
How first I enter'd it I scarce can say, 
Such sleepy dulness in that instant weigh'd 
My senses down, when the true path I left, 
But when a mountain's foot I reach'd, where clos'd 
The valley, that had pierced my heart with dread, 
I look'd aloft, and saw his shoulders broad 
Already vested with that planet's beam, 
Who leads all wanderers safe through every way. — Line 10. 

IV. 

Those things alone 
Are to be fear'd, whence evil may proceed ; 
None else, for none are terrible beside. — Line 87, canto 2. 

V. 

As florets, by the frosty air of night 
Bent down and clos'd, when day has blanch 'd their leaves, 
Rise all unfolded on their spiry stems ; 
So was my fainting vigor new restor'd, 
And to my heart such kindly courage ran, 
That I as one undaunted soon replied. — Line 127. 

VI. 

Straightway in silence fell the shaggy cheeks 
Of him, the boatman o'er the livid lake, 
Around whose eyes glar'd wheeling flames. 

— Line 91, canto 3. 
VII. 
One still another following, till the bough 
Strews all its honors on the earth beneath ; 
E'en in like manner Adam's evil brood 
Cast themselves one by one down from the shore, 
Each at a beck, as falcon at his call. — Line 105. 

VIII. 

This said, the gloomy region trembling shook 
So terribly, that yet with clammy dews 
Fear chills my brow. — Line 121. 



SELECTIONS. 



273 



— Line 1, canto 4. 



-Line 61. 



Broke the deep slumber in my brain a crash 
Of heavy thunder, that I shook myself, 
As one by main force rous'd. 

X. 

We, while he spake, ceas'd not our onward road, 
Still passing through the wood ; for so I name 
Those spirits thick beset. 

XI. 

So I beheld united the bright school 
Of him, the monarch of sublimest song, 
That o'er the others like an eagle soars. — Line 89. 

XII. 

Another way 
My sage guide leads me, from that air serene, 
Into a climate ever vex'd with storms : 
And to a part I come where no light shines. — Line 145. 

XIII. 

There Minos stands 
Grinning with ghastly feature : he, of all 
Who enter, strict examining the crimes, 
Gives sentence, and dismisses them beneath, 
According as he f oldeth him around : 
For when before him comes the ill-fated soul, 
It all confesses ; and that judge severe 
Of sins, considering what place in hell 
Suits the transgression, with his tail so oft 
Himself encircles, as degrees beneath 



He dooms it to descend. 



— Line 4, canto 5. 



XIV. 

As in large troops 
And multitudinous, when winter reigns, 
The starlings on their wings are borne abroad, 
So bears the tyrannous gust those evil souls. — Line 40. 

XV. 

Soon as the wind 
Sway'd them toward us, I thus frarn'd my speech : 
u O wearied spirits ! come, and hold discourse 
With us, if by none else restrain'd." — Line 77. 



274 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

XVI. 

As doves 
By fond desire invited, on wide wings 
And firm, to their sweet nests returning home, 
Cleave the air, wafted by their will along ; 
Thus issu'd from that troop, where Dido ranks, 
They through the ill air speeding ; with such force 
My cry prevail 1 d by strong affection urg'd. — Line 80. 

XVII. 

"0 gracious creature and benign ! who go'st 
Visiting, through this element obscure, 
Us, who the world with bloody stain imbru'd ; 
If, for a friend, the King of all, we own'd, 
Our pray'r to him should for thy peace arise, 
Since thou hast pity on our evil plight." — Line 87. 

XVIII. 

" Love, that in gentle heart is quickly learnt, 
Entangled him by that fair form, from me 
Ta'en in such cruel sort as grieves me still." — Line 99. 

XIX. 

No greater grief than to remember days 

Of joy, when mis'ry is at hand ! — Line 118. 

XX. 

We, o'er the shades thrown prostrate by the brunt 
Of the heavy tempest passing, set our feet 
Upon their emptiness, that substance seem'd. 

— Line 33, canto 6. 
XXI. 

Consult thy knowledge ; that decides 
That, as each thing to more perfection grows, 
It feels more sensibly both good and pain. — Line 108. 

XXII. 

So 'tis will'd 
On high, there where the great archangel pour'd 
Heav'n's vengeance on the first adulterer proud. 

— Line 10, canto 7. 



SELECTIONS. 275 



XXIII. 

Thus we, descending to the fourth steep ledge, 

Gain'd on the dismal shore, that all the woe 

Hems in of all the universe. — Line 16. 

XXIV. 

Not all the gold that is beneath the moon, 
Or ever hath been, of these toil-worn souls 
Might purchase rest for one. — Line 65. 

XXV. 

My theme pursuing, I relate that ere 

We reach'd the lofty turret's base, our eyes 

Its height ascended, where two cressets hung 

We mark'd, and from afar another light 

Return the signal, so remote that scarce 

The eye could catch its beam. — Line 1, canto 8. 

XXVI. 

There above 
How many now hold themselves mighty kings 
Who here like swine shall wallow in the mire, 
Leaving behind them horrible dispraise ! — Line 47. 

XXVII. 

The hue, which coward dread on my pale cheeks 

Imprinted, when I saw my guide turn back, 

Chas'd that from his which newly they had worn, 

And inwardly restrain'd it. — Line 1, canto 9. 

XXVIII. 

As frogs 
Before their foe the serpent through the wave, 
Ply swiftly all, till at the ground each one 
Lies on a heap ; more than a thousand spirits 
Destroy'd, so saw I fleeing before one 
Who pass'd with unwet feet the Stygian sound. — Line 75. 

XXIX. 

Upon the utmost verge of a high bank, 
By craggy rocks environ'd round, we came, 
Where woes beneath more cruel yet were stow'd : 
And here to shun the horrible excess 



276 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

Of fetid exhalation, upward cast 

From the profound abyss, behind the lid 

Of a great monument we stood retir'd, 

Whereon this scroll I mark'd : "I have in charge 

Pope Anastasius, whom Photinus drew 

From the right path." — Line 1, canto 11. 

XXX. 

The place where to descend the precipice 

We came, was rough as Alp, and on its verge 

Such object lay, as every eye would shun. — Line 1, canto 12. 

XXXI. 

Ere farther thou proceed, know thou art now 

I' the second round, and shalt be, till thou come 

Upon the horrid sand : look therefore well 

Around thee, and such things thou shalt behold, 

As would my speech discredit. — Line 19, canto 13. 

XXXII. 
Men once were we, that now are rooted here. — Line 38. 

xxxin. 

My soul, disdainful and disgusted, sought 

Refuge in death from scorn, and I became, 

Just as I was, unjust toward myself. — Line 72. 

XXXI Y. 

And of you, 
If any to the world indeed return 
Clear he from wrong my memory, that lies 
Yet prostrate under envy's cruel blow. — Line 77. 

XXXV. 

When departs 
The fierce soul from the body, by itself 
Thence torn asunder to the seventh gulf 
By Minos doom'd, into the wood it falls, 
No place assigned, but wheresoever chance 
Hurls it, there sprouting, as a grain of spelt, 
It rises to a sapling, growing thence 
A savage plant. — Line 96. 



SELECTIONS. 277 



XXXVI. 

Attentive yet to listen to the trunk 
We stood, expecting farther speech, when us 
A noise surpris'd, as when a man perceives 
The wild boar and the hunt approach his place 
Of station' d watch, who of the beasts and boughs 
Loud rustling round him hears. — Line 112. 

XXXVII. 
Soon as the charity of native land 
Wrought in my bosom, I the scatter' d leaves 
Collected, and to him restor'd, who now 
Was hoarse with utt'rance. — Line 1, canto 14. 

XXXVIII. 

To the limit thence 
We came, which from the third the second round 
Divides, and where of justice is display'd 
Contrivance horrible. — Line 4. 

XXXIX. 

Things then first seen 
Clearlier to manifest, I tell how next 
A plain we reach'd, that from its sterile bed 
Each plant repell'd. — Line 7. 

XL. 

The mournful wood waves round 
Its garland on all sides, as round the wood 
Spreads the sad f oss. — Line 10. 

XLI. 

Of naked spirits many a flock I saw, 
All weeping piteously, to different laws 

Subjected. — Line 18. 

XLII. 

O'er all the sand fell slowly wafting down 
Dilated flakes of fire, as flakes of snow 
On Alpine summit, when the wind is hush'd. — Line 25. 

XLIII. 

Unceasing was the play of wretched hands, 

Now this, now that way glancing, to shake off 

The heat, still falling fresh. — Line 37. 



GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

XLIV. 

Straight he himself, who was aware I ask'd 
My guide of him, exclahn'd : " Such as I was 
When living, dead such now I am." — Line 46. 

XLV. 

This of the seven kings was one, 
Who girt the Theban walls with siege, and held, 
As still he seems to hold, God in disdain, 
And sets His high omnipotence at naught. — Line 64. 

XLYI. 

Silently on we pass'd 
To where there gushes from the forests' bound 
A little brook, whose crimson'd wave yet lifts 
My hair with horror. — Line 72. 

XLYII. 

Of all that I have shown thee, since that gate 
We enter'd first, whose threshold is to none 
Denied, naught else so worthy of regard, 
As is this river, has thine eye discern' d, 
O'er which the flaming volley all is quench'd. — Line 81. 

XLVIII. 

So spake my guide ; and I him thence besought, 
That having giv'n me appetite to know, 
The food he too would give, that hunger crav'd. — Line 86. 

XLIX. 

A mountain rises there, 
Call'd Ida, joyous once with leaves and streams, 
Deserted now like a forbidden thing. — Line 92. 



Lethe thou shalt see, 
But not within this hollow, in the place, 
Whither to lave themselves the spirits go, 
Whose blame hath been by penitence remov'd. — Line 131. 



SELECTIONS. 279 

LI. 

One of the solid margins bears us now 
Envelop'd in the mist, that from the stream 
Arising, hovers o'er, and saves from fire 
Both piers and water. — Line 1, canto 15. 

LII. 

They each one ey'd us, as at eventide 

One eyes another under a new moon, 

And toward us sharpen' d their sight as keen 

As an old tailor at his needle's eye. — Line 17. 

LIII. 

" O son ! " said he, " whoever of this throng 
One instant stops, lies then a hundred years, 
No fan to ventilate him, when the fire 
Smites sorest." — Line 37. 

LIV. 
This only would I have thee clearly note : 
That so my conscience have no plea against me ; 
Do fortune as she list, I stand prepar'd. — Line 101. 

LV. 

Thus alone 
Yet forward on th' extremity I pac'd 
Of that seventh circle, where the mournful tribe 
Were seated. — Line 41, canto 17. 

LYI. 

And when amongst them looking round I came, 
A yellow purse I saw with azure wrought, 
That wore a lion's countenance and port. — Line 56. 

LVE. 
Pursuing thus our solitary way 
Among the crags and splinters of the rock, 
Sped not our feet without the help of hands. — Line 17. 

LVIII. 

So were mine eyes inebriate with view 

Of the vast multitude, whom various wounds 

Disfigur'd, that they longed to stay and weep. 

— Line 1, canto 29. 



280 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

LIX. 

But pass we on, nor waste 
Our words ; for so each language is to him, 
As his to others, understood by none. — Line 72, canto 31. 

LX. 

O'er better waves to speed her rapid course 
The light bark of my genius lifts the sail, 
Well pleas'd to leave so cruel sea behind ; 
And of that second region will I sing, 
In which the human spirit from sinful blot 
Is purg'd, and for ascent to Heaven prepares. 

— Line 1, canto 1, Purgatorio. 

LXI. 
The dawn had chas'd the matin hour of prime, 
Which fled before it, so that from afar 
I spy'd the trembling of the ocean stream. — Line 114. 

LXII. 

My sins were horrible ; but so wide arms 
Hath goodness infinite, that it receives 

All who turn to it. — Line 118, canto 3. 

LXIII. 

O power divine ! 
If thou to me of thine impart so much, 
That of that happy realm the shadow'd form 
Trac'd in my thoughts I may set forth to view, 
Thou shalt behold me of thy favor'd tree 
Come to the foot, and crown myself with leaves. 

— Line 20, canto 1, Paradiso. 
LXIV. 
Much more than vainly doth he loose from shore, 
Since he returns not such as he set forth, 
Who fishes for the truth and wanteth skill. 

— Line 116, canto 13. 
LXV. 
Let not the people be too swift to judge, 
As one who reckons on the blades in field, 
Or ere the crop be ripe. For I have seen 
The thorn frown rudely all the winter long 



REVIEW OF SENTENCES AND ELEMENTS. 



281 



And after bear the rose upon its top ; 
And bark, that all the way across the sea 
Ran straight and speedy, perish at the last, 
E'en in the haven's mouth. 



— Linel2Q. 



LXVI. 

That all the world should have been turn'd 
To Christian, and no miracle been wrought, 
Would in itself be such a miracle, 
The rest were not an hundredth part so great. 

— Line 104, canto 24. 



Outline of Elements 



671. Review of Sentences and Elements. 

(1) Discuss the value of Analysis. Of Diagrams. 

f Simple (a) 
r As to Form \ Compound (b) 
I Complex (c) 

{Adjective (d) 
Substantive (e) 
Adverbial (/) 
{First Class (</), word. 
Second Class (h), phrase. 
Third Class (i), clause. 

(2) Define and illustrate, — (a), (6), (c), (cZ), (e), (/), (£), (JO, (*)• 

(3) Define and illustrate : — 

adg, adh, adi; bdg, bdh, bdi; cdg, cdh, cdi. 
aeg, aeh, aei; beg, beh, bei ; ceg, cell, cei. 
afg, afh, afi ; bfg, bfh, bfi; cfg, cfh, cfi. 

(4) Referring to article 75, illustrate : — 

ad, ae, af, ag ; 
bd, be, &/, bg ; 
cd, ce, cf, eg. 

(5) Referring to articles 93 and 94, illustrate : — 

ad, bd, cd ; 

ae, be, ce ; 

af, bf, cf. 



282 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 



PREFACE TO THE FIRST THOUSAND. 

672. Apology. — The only apology the author of this 
book has for adding another to the long list of books 
having for their object the Grammar of the English 
Sentence is that fifteen years spent in studying the sub- 
ject, and in teaching it to the pupils of every grade of 
advancement, from the beginning classes of the country 
school to the college student of logic, from six to twelve 
months in the year, with from one to four classes a day, 
and one to three hundred in a class, ought to result in 
an experience useful to the student and the teacher of 
grammar. With the hope that such a result may be 
realized this work has been prepared. 

673. Claim of the Book. — It is not put forth wholly as a 
product of originality. Not much of the matter itself is 
new; and this is possibly its greatest merit. Indeed, if 
the book contains one new thing, that one should be ac- 
cepted most reluctantly by the student. 

But while the writer claims, as the best recommendation 
of his book, that much of its thought has been in substance 
expressed by great authors and teachers, he claims also to 
have accumulated from a variety of sources, modified, and 
arranged what, it is hoped, is the most valuable text-book 
for advanced students, high schools, normal schools, and 
colleges that has yet been published on this subject. 

The author wishes to emphasize what is claimed by some 
of the greatest educators and denied by others — that 
English grammar is a science and should be taught as such. 
English has been styled the " grammarless tongue" and 
justly perhaps, if viewed in the light of other languages. 



PREFACE TO THE FIEST THOUSAND. 283 

If grammar means inflection only, our language is without 
a grammar ; but if it is founded upon the idea that the 
thought expressed by a sentence determines, and is deter- 
mined by, the relative positions of its parts, then our 
language can boast of a grammar excelled by none. 

674. Objection to Grammar. — It has been urged against 
the study of grammar that it never produces good speakers 
and writers. This is, partly true. Language must precede 
grammar, just as any other art must precede its corre- 
sponding science; but without the science the art would 
remain imperfect. It is mostly by imitation that the 
child gets his first lessons in language, and his only 
books are his parents, playmates, and teachers. By imi- 
tation alone, with proper surroundings, he may acquire 
the most elegant and most forcible style ; but, with more 
probable surroundings, he will acquire by imitation also 
the most objectionable brogue, barbarism, or slang. 

675. How Language is Learned. — If our habits of lan- 
guage were formed by imitation only, we would be as help- 
less as the blank page that receives with equal facility the 
most faultless expression and the grossest vulgarism. By 
imitation we might become good speakers and writers, 
and more easily than in any other way if we could see 
and hear only the best of language. But such oppor- 
tunities do not exist. Even in the finest fields of litera- 
ture may be found such a mixture of the tares and the 
wheat as will require the discriminating analysis of the 
careful student to separate them. 

A little thought will make it clear that to acquire cor- 
rect language we must perform two processes, which may 
be called deception and rejection — we must learn to imitate 
the language of our best speakers and writers; this any 
one can do ; and then we must cast away from it its im- 
perfections; this can be done only by the thoughtful 



284 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

student of language, and after he has fully realized that 
in every word there is an idea, and in every sentence a 
thought. 

676. Other Use of Grammar. — But it must not be under- 
stood that its practical utility as a means of acquiring 
language is the only, or even the greatest, benefit to be 
derived from grammatical study. As a mental drill in 
logical thinking, it is unexcelled. Nothing is more evident 
than that carelessness in expression indicates carelessness 
in thought. Careless thinking can be avoided only by 
carefully analyzing thought itself. This can be done only 
by analyzing the language in which it is expressed. No 
power of the human mind is superior to that of analysis, 
and one that can analyze the English sentence is well 
prepared to analyze anything else. 

" Briefly," says Leslie Stephen, " to teach a child to 
speak is to educate it, to prepare it for association with 
others, to lay it open to all manner of influences, to start 
it with a mass of knowledge already elaborately organized, 
to teach it methods of thinking and imagining, to insin- 
uate into its mind philosophical and religious principles, 
and to inoculate it with innumerable associations, which 
must be important elements in the development of its 
character." 

677. Diagrams. — The system of diagramming used in 
this book the author does not claim as his own. It was 
originated by Professor W. F. L. Sanders, and he is 
certainly entitled to the credit of having originated the 
most ingenious, the most attractive, the most complete, 
and yet the simplest of all the methods of diagramming. 
The only change the author has made in Mr. Sanders's 
system is in the arrangement of the infinitive and its objec- 
tive subject. 

It has been somewhat common for a certain class of 



PREFACE TO THE FIEST THOUSAND. 285 

educators to condemn diagramming altogether, their only 
reasons being, that the pupil must know how to diagram 
a sentence before he can do it, and if he knows how, there 
is no use of his doing it. The reader can see how foolish 
such talk is when he thinks of applying it to the demon- 
stration of propositions in geometry, to the solutions of 
problems in arithmetic and algebra, and indeed to every 
attempt to exhibit to the eye what has been conceived by 
the mind. It is a well-known psychological principle 
that the mind is more deeply and more clearly impressed 
when reached through any two of the senses than when 
reached through either of them. To diagram a sentence 
is to exhibit to the eye the relations of its parts. This is 
the most satisfactory way for a teacher to give a class a 
correct understanding of a sentence or to correct their 
misunderstandings of it. There is no other branch of 
study in which we do not make use of diagrams, and 
there is no branch of study in which diagrams can be 
used to better advantage than in English grammar ; and 
the teacher that adopts and thoroughly understands 
any good method of diagramming will find it a source 
of interest and enthusiasm in his class not to be 
aroused in any other way. Here President Bascom 
speaks to the point, " There is an effort constantly 
made to present all the difficult matter of science through 
diagrams, models, experiments, and specimens ; since 
anything offered to the eye is thought of more avail than 
the most comprehensive description." 

678. Analysis. — This, so far as the author knows, is the 
only complete analysis of the sentence ever given, and it 
was originated by President Alfred Holbrook. Every 
element must be described as to structure, as to use, and 
as to base; this makes very careful and accurate think- 
ing indispensable. 



286 GRAMMAR OF THE ENGLISH SENTENCE. 

679. Syntax. — The author feels confident that teachers 
will approve of the method of syntax contained in this 
book. By it the pupil is compelled to use his knowledge 
of grammatical principles and also his judgment in apply 
ing them. 

680. Selections. — The selections used have been taken 
from more than a hundred grammars, and many of the most 
prominent works of literature. Two objects have been 
kept in view : first, to collect such sentences as will best 
illustrate the greatest possible variety of constructions ; 
second, to make selections that will be attractive to the 
pupil, so that while he is learning the grammar of the 
language he may also learn to appreciate the beauty of its 
literature. 

If this book shall aid some of those it may reach in 
acquiring a careful, thoughtful discrimination, and shall 
create in them an interest for those higher thought studies 
to which grammar is so closely allied, it will then have 
accomplished its work. 

JONATHAN RIGDON. 

Central Normal College, August 6, 1890. 



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